When creating a group of languages, it's never sometimes good to focus too much on a proto-language. This was how my gem, Hanawenzo, was made--with an idea of a proto-language, but not one in particular. This resulted in some rather unique problems, such a constant dissatisfaction with the verbal system. It also create the problem of word building: which words are native, which ones are borrowed?
While I had a sketch of a protolang, it never was much good. So instead, after toiling, I have worked on a new constructed language, the new copy of proto-Deithas.
Phonology and orthography
The consonant phonology contains the following sets:
Nasal: [m n ŋ] m n ŋ
Pre-nasal stops: [mp nt ŋk] mp nt ŋk
Stops: [p t ʈ c k ʡ] p t ṭ j k ħ
Voiced stops~Voiced Fricatives: [b~β d~ð g~ɣ] b d g
Voiceless fricatives: [ɸ s ʃ ʂ x ʜ] f s z ṣ x h
Trills: [ʙ r я] v r ḫ
Approximants: [ɻ j w] ṛ y w
Laterals: [l ʟ] l ł
High vowel: [ɨ] i
Mid vowel: [ə] e
Low vowel: [a] a
The language contains a primary series of bilabial, dental, and velar sounds. It contains a secondary series within the retroflex, palatal, and epiglottal series, and a trace within the postalveolar series. Its vowel system is a three-point vertical series, which means that height is only distinguished; there seems to be phonemic distinction between roundedness, nasality, or length. These factors seem to be a property of the daughter languages.
Prosody is based on a stress-accent, which is grammatical and phonemic. By that, certain roots are distinguished solely on the placement of the accent, and so are grammatical forms. Generally, words are stressed on the second-to-last accent in their least marked form.
The sonority scale is built by rating the following series (lowest to highest):
1 Voiceless plosives [p t ʈ c k ʡ]
2 Voiced Plosives~fricatives [b~β d~ð g~ɣ]
3 Voiceless fricatives [ɸ s ʃ ʂ x ʜ]
4 Prenasalized stops [mp nt ŋk]
5 Nasals [m n ŋ]
6 Lateral approximants [l ł]
7 Trills [v r ĝ]
8 Approximants [ɻ j w]
9 Vowels: [a ə ɨ]
Phonotactics are built upon the sonority scale to build the syllables:
Code: Select all
_Onset_
{
{
{fricatives} AND
{
{voiceless plosives} OR
{voiceled plosives~fricatives}
} AND {
{approximants} OR
{laterals} OR
{trills}
}
} OR {
{pre-nasalized stops} OR
{nasals}
}
}
_Nucleus_
{vowel}
_Rime_
{
{prenasalized stops} OR
{nasals} OR
{
{
{approximants} OR
{fricatives} OR
{laterals} OR
{trills}
} AND {
{voiceless plosives} OR
{voiced plosives~fricatives}
}
}
}
* Any element, other than the nucleus, or sub-element, may be zero. This has the possibility of allowing a syllable to be just a vowel.
* No syllable can begin and end with a pre-nasalized stop.
* Epiglottal sounds are errant, and can oftentimes occupy invalid positions. The reasons for this are generally unknown.
There is some evidence that nasals and approximants (including laterals) can be syllabified, which can appropriately modify how a syllable is made--however, these instances are rare or extremely typed in a singular instance, and should not be taken as the rule.
In the case where a lateral, approximant, or nasal is syllabified regularly, a notation is used:
* A syllabified [w], [y] is always written, in this transcription, as u, i.
* In all other instances, it is written with an undercircle. As the board won't let me use combining characters with consonants, this leads to some trouble. For the purpose of the board, I've left them unmarked. Where necessary, I will specificy if the consonant is vocalic.
Basic morphology
Proto-Deithas' words are built from roots, stems, and affixes:
* A root is a bare word, which contains a meaning. A root has three possible functions: a. Verbal, b. Nominal, c. Verbal and nominal.
* A stem is used to derive the root into a meaning or function, generally through a classifier or productive derivation.
* Affixes exist as prefixes (such as augments or reduplication), infixes (such as the tau, sigma, or khi infixes, or the pre-nasalized prospective forms of verbs), or suffixes (such as numeric suffixes on nouns).
Nominal morphology
Nouns are any word which are formed from a nominal or nominal-verbal root, or derived from verb through a derivational process. Nouns are defined by function: They can stand in the subject and object position of a verb, become a constituent argument in a noun phrase through the use of a particle; they are assigned into a class, either animate or inanimate, which tends to be natural; animate nouns express one of two cases, either nominative or oblique, which is defined through stress (inanimate nouns only have the nominative case); and lastly, nouns can receive a numerical suffix that confers numerical marking, but has an indefinite impact.
In the conjectured pre-Proto-Deithas, the case marking formed as a result of the rules governing accent: The rising pitch could occupy the ultimate or penultimate syllable. The oblique was formed with a simple suffix, generally assumed to be -e:
Nom: **kʷóy-ùn-tʸ, one whose occupation requires both hands, slave, servant; Obl. **kʷɔi-ún-tʸè. When the vowel system collapsed along with the pitch-accent, the rising pitch became the primary stress, and the oblique marker was eroded away. This led to the shift in the accent:
Nom: kwéyunṭ, slave, servant; Obl. kweyúnṭ.
This situation, however, only applied to nouns of more than one syllable. In the instance of monosyllables, there appears to be at most six ways, four of which being exceedingly common, two of which being extremely rare, in the formation of the oblique. The four most common ways all utilize the same principle: Adding an additional syllable, and through analogy, stressing that syllable:
- By adding a classifier suffix to a noun; this applies to nouns that do not have a classifier suffix already: Nom: *dléyb, tail, Obl. *dleybwá (*-wa is a classifier implying an extension of a body. It tends to occupy limbs or body parts that extend outward, arms, legs, fingers, etc.)
- By applying a diminutive to a noun; this applies to nouns where the diminutive will not cause a shift in meaning: Nom: *łéw, eye, Obl. łewéy.
- By applying an augmentative to a noun; this applies to nouns where the augmentative will not cause a shift in meaning: *préḫ, lizard, Obl. preḫmáw.
- An epenthic vowel (which seems to be a remnant of the old case marker), Nom. *káḫyṭ, god, goddess, *kaḫyṭé.
Rare, irregular formation:
- Reduction of the vowel and syllabification of an inherent consonant. This only applies if the consonant can be syllabific, that is, either *m, n, ŋ, ṛ, l, or ł: Nom. *ṭáŋk, bear, Obl. *ṭŋˊk. This rare formation appears mostly in borrowings.
- In some instances, the oblique case suffix in pre-Proto-Deithas, when dropped, caused a lengthening of vowels. Long vowels, at the same time, were breaking apart into diphthongs, with one element becoming a desyllabic version of itself: **drʸá-e > **drʸâ > **drʸaə > *dṛáh, with the nominative in *dṛá. This formation typically occurs in open monosyllables, but has low frequency in closed monosyllables.
Nouns generally receive a suffix for number. These numerical suffixes possess a strong indefinite connotation, so are better refered to as indefinite articles. Their absence, however, implies a strong definite connotation. In animate nouns, there are three such articles: Singular, dual, and plural. In inanimate nouns, the singular is formed with an indefinite article, but the plural is formed through a much different means.
There are two types of indefinite articles, depending on environment. These environments are open syllables and closed syllables.
Animate nouns:
* Singular:
** Open: *-ḫz, *adáḫṭṛa-ḫz, a cougar, one cougar.
** Closed: *-eḫz, *ṭáŋk-eḫz, a bear, one bear.
* Dual:
** Open: *-wn, *adáḫṭṛa-wn, a pair of cougar, two cougars.
** Closed: *-un, *ṭáŋk-un, a pair of bears, two bears.
* Plural:
** Open: *-mh, *adáḫṭṛa-mh, some cougars, a many number of cougars, cougars.
** Closed: *-mh (syllabified m): *ṭáŋk-mh, some bears, a many number of bears, bears.
One would expect that the number markers would alleviate the formation of obliques in monosyllables. This tends to not be the case; the oblique in monosyllables is still formed as previously, plus the number marking.
Inanimate nouns:
* Singular:
** Open: *-ḫn, kálṭa-ḫn, a city, one city.
** Closed: *-ḫn (syllabified n): *ṛéwb-ḫn, a horn, one horn.
There tends to be a frequency that the classifier is lost when the indefinite is added. It appears that thematically, this suffix used to be a classifier: *méḫwa, breast > *méḫ-ḫn (syllabified n), a breast, one breast.
The plural of such nouns are formed irregularly, yet still retain an indefinite impact through analogy with animate nouns:
* If the noun possesses a classifier, that classifier is reduplicated in full: *dwádag, egg (*-ag is a loose classifier implying domestication) > *dwadágag, some eggs, a clutch of eggs.
* Nouns not derived from classifiers may receive one, then reduplicate it *át, digit, finger > *atwáwa, some fingers.
* In other instances, the least sonorous consonant and nucleus vowel in the root are reduplicated: *bséŋk, gift > *bebséŋk, some gifts.
Some animate nouns tend not to form their plurals with articles. They tend to follow the inanimate rules for forming a plural, plus one additional method. The reasoning for this unknown.
* The suffix *-ey (which is not tied to the diminutive) is used: *súḫt land > *súḫtey, some lands, lands.
Adjectival morphology
Adjectives are formed from any type of root, but typically nominal. Their function is a transparent and attributive from nouns. They do not possess any true morphological distinction from nouns. Adjectives, when modifying a noun, do not indefinite articles, or show even a nominative-oblique distinction. Adjectives can occupy the same position as a noun, in a substantive, rather than attributive, form. In this instance, it is identical to a noun.
Adjectives generally precede the noun they modify: *mpít kléppeḫn, a new stone.
There is a comprehensive system for creating comparatives. Comparison of adjectives works on one axis: Positive, comparative, and superlative. There exists three separate ways of forming the superlative, though it appears there is no thematic relationship to the adjective and the morphological process. That is, an adjective may express any of three superlatives.
Comparative: -int, -nt, *jábasint, fuller.
Superlative 1: Reduplication of least sonorous consonant + root vowel, jajábas, most full.
Superlative 2: Same superlative 2, with -ant, -nt, jajábasant, most full.
Superlative 3: -isk., jábasisk, most full.
Pronominal morphology
Pronouns are a closed list of words that bear an anaphoric relationship to a stated or understood antecedent. Morphologically, pronouns act as nouns but differ slightly on two factors:
1). Pronouns do not take indefinite articles; their dual and plural forms are reminiscent of the inanimate singular, and animate dual and plural indefinite articles.
2). The obliques are formed as per monosyllables, but show no thematic correlation with nominal lexemes.
The root forms are common in use, even if the number is known and emphasis is not required:
* 1st - *ehm
* 2nd - *yat
* 3rd - *dwe, *sám, *ḫém.
The oblique is formed differently for each pronoun:
* 1st - *ehmé
* 2nd - *yaht
* 3rd - *dú, *smˊ, *ḫmˊ.
In 3rd person pronouns, three are given. The first one is given as the most common, and the latter two have a proximate/obviative distinction, respectively. The distinction between animate and inanimate of these two lie in function, context, and number. In terms of function, an inanimate noun will not express an oblique distinction. One can deduce the animacy by context of the verb, or through anapohra, and finally, the inanimate form does not express number.
The number markings, as stated, are reminiscent of the indefinite articles:
Singular: *-ḫn, the syllabific of the n depends on the environment.
Dual: *-un (or in the case of third person nominative/1st and 3rd oblique, *-wn.)
Plural: *-i or -y.
The similarity of these suffixes is attributed to their formation:
* Singular *-ḫn in pronuons is formed from pre-Proto-Deithas **-ēn, a variant form of **ē, one. The inanimate singular indefinite article, however, is formed from **-ēne, a now defunct classifier.
* The dual are remarkably similar, because they are formed by suffixing pPD **ūn, two, to the word.
* *-ey, and this variant, *-i (Possibly from -ē) seems to have been used as a collective suffix, and has gained a meaning of plurality.
The most common 3rd person pronoun, *dwe, is possibly derived from an older interrogative adjective, the interrogative meaning having been eroded away. This is realized by the fact that the interrogative pronoun is derived from an extension of this root and the root for interrogative adverbs. The interrogative adjective/pronoun is dwéne. Despite having an always indefinite meaning, this noun is never receives an indefinite article, nor is it marked for number.
There is a combination of the root + aḫ to express possesison. The second form listed is a reduced form, and it is never stressed. The West-Deithas languages utilized the reduced forms as nominative prefixes, but North-Deithas languages tend to keep them separate.
1st - *éhmaḫ, maḫ
2nd - *yáhtaḫ, yaḫ
3rd - *dwáḫ, duḫ
Whose/of which - *dúnaḫ, ntaḫ
There also exists anaphoric adjectives, which can therefore be used as pronouns:
Any - *mé
Either (of two) - *ámp
Every - tyén
No one - *kí
Other (of two) - *e-slént
One - *é
Sole - *ṣké
Some - *pré
Such - *ha
Which (of two) - *áŋ
When used as adjectives, as previously stated, they have no special forms. When used as pronouns, they can receive number markings as per pronouns (rather than indefinite articles). They are noted for forming their oblique/plural with the classifier -ṭ (which is the same as the derivational suffix, -ṭ, which suggests agency).
Adverbs and nominal et cetera
Proto-Deithas possesses a two axis correlative system (this, that), and expresses them in location of (here, there), movement towards (hither, thither), movement from (hence, thence). The proximate/obviative distinction is releative to topicality. That is, "here" is relative to, generally, the subject. If unspecified, then it tends to be that of the speaker.
Proximate
* This, now - *sám
* Here - *sm-íy-ṭ
* Hither - *sm-íy-i
* Hence - *sm-íy-aḫ
* Now, at this time - *sán-tr (syllabic r)
Obviative
* That, then - *ḫém
* There, at that time - *ḫm-iy-ṭ
* Thither - *ḫm-íy-i
* Thence - *ḫm-íy-aḫ
* Then, at that time - ḫen-tr
Interrogative:
* What, when? - *dwé
* Where? - *dw-íy-ṭ
* Towards where? - dw-íy-i
* Whence?, from where? - dw-íy-aḫ
* At what time? dwé-tr
In terms of sám, ḫem, and dwé, which share both the temporal and locative adverbial meanings, distinction is refined with the use of both syntax and qualifiers. Temporal adverbs tend to precede the verb, while locative adverbs tend to follow it. When they are used for relative adjectives or prornouns, they are typically fronted, which causes some confusion. The phrase ap sám, ap ḫem, and ap dwé (thus this, thus that, thus who?, thus what?) are prefered.
Nouns are not just modified by adjectives--particles can also provide relationships to the clause or to loosely to another word. Such particles are reduced verbs or verbs in their bare roots. These particles generally precede the constituent noun phrase they are modifying. Unlike a more familiar class such as prepositions, these particles operate on a clausal level--they either precede the verb they modify, or the constituent phrase, however modifies the phrase. This is similar to Homeric Greek prepositions, which contained a more adverbial meaning.
*ṣew (*ṣéw-tey, to follow), alongside, behind.
*diw (*díw-tey, to sit, to stay), at, on, in
*ahw (*hemmáḫ-tey, to walk), from
*iṛd (*iṛd-tey, to use, to do, also -iṛd, tool classifier), using, possessing, having
There is, however, a particle that provides a relationship between two constituent nouns or noun phrases: aḫ. This particle is either understood as a possessive prefix, or a genitive suffix. The possessing noun is put into the oblique case, while the possessed noun is in either the nominative or oblique case, dependent on whether it is in the subject or object position of the verb.
*eslenṭ aḫ dáḫag, another's dog.
In some instances, this particle can modify the possessing noun, rather than the possessed:
*aḫ eslentéḫn dáḫag, someone's dog.
The confusion arises in dialectalism; in some dialects, it is a mark of being possessed (such as West-Deithas languages, which utilize it as a prefix). North-Deithas languages instead utilize it as a suffix on the possessing noun, forming the genitive case. South-Central Deithas and Isolate languages have no distinction: In Azwrd, it is a prefix to the possessing noun. In the Yeyet-J`an group, it is marked on both for agreement.