2+3's Project

[2+3 clusivity]

I've had a bit of time to conlang recently and have pushed one of my projects forward -- TEST for purposes of this post. Incidentally, have any of you noticed that separate projects seem to evolve towards a mean?

I specifically wanted to work several themes into my current project:

(1) Clusivity outside of the normal first person plural inclusive/exclusive distinction;
(2) An unusual but natural number system;
(3) A distance contrast expanding beyond third person pronouns/demonstratives;
(4) Differential (quirky) case marking of subjects and objects; and
(5) After reading Aikhenvald, use of non-numeral classifiers.


(1) & (2) Clusivity and Number.

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First, because this will get confusing, I will refer to clusivity as follows: 1-3 = the speaker and possibly third persons; 1-2 = the speaker and at least one addressee; 2-2 = at least two addressees but possibly multiple addresses; 2-3 = at least one addressee and possibly third persons. 3-3 follow the same logic. I will refer to number as follows: minimal, augmented, and, for limited items, anti-dual.

Minimal means the minimum number of any item/group, which typically lines up with Singular. It also includes (essentially dual) 1-2 and 2-3 pronouns; however, within 1-3, the Minimal refers to only the speaker. Further, Minimal includes terms for paired body parts, dyadic kinship terms, and other natural pairs. For these later (non-pronouns), there is a minor number system: the anti-dual, which is used to single out a specific member in a pair. Augmented includes greater amounts: inclusive pronouns with greater than two referents, multiple dyads, pairs, etc. The augmented may be analyzed as occurring in two types: additively augmented and associatively augmented (either by addressees or third persons). The two Augmentatives overlap with some items as displayed below.

The numbers extend as follows:

1-2 ----- 2-2 ----- 1-3 ----- 2-3 ----- 3-3 ----- kin/Names ----- Dyadic Kin ----- Paired nouns ----- common nouns
<-------------------------------------------------minimal----------------------------------------------------------------------->
<2 Assoc Aug>...................................................................................................................
.....................<------------------3 Associatively Augmented------------>.............................................
....................................................<-----------------Additively Augmented--------------------------------->
.......................................................................<------------Anti-Dual------------->......................

For example: */m-ũ:-d:-0/ --> /mũ:d:/ == 1st-2d.sg.nom or 1-2nd.min.nom; */t-ĩ:-lõŋg-0/ --> /tĩ:lõŋg/ == 2nd-3rd.prox.pl.nom or 2-3rd.aug.prox.nom.

EDIT: Further notes on minimal-augmented number systems.

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Taken from my CC Quickies Post -- 1st.sg is inherently exclusive -- most analyses just don't bother to note that. I think the real question, is why don't we see 1st.sg inclusives that often in analyses.

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Some languages with the clusivity feature do not structure their pronouns on a singular v. dual v. plural basis. Instead, they use what is called a minimal v. unit augmented v. augmented number system.

In more familiar languages using singular-plural, the following pattern as sets:

without dual:
(1) 1st.sg, 2nd.sg;
(2) 1st.pl.ex, 1st.pl.inc., 2nd.pl.

With dual:
(1) 1st.sg, 2nd.sg, etc;
(2) 1st.du.ex, 1st.du.inc, 2nd.du;
(3) 1st.pl.ex, 1st.pl.inc., 2nd.pl.

Case/number markers in these languages often -- though certainly not always -- are most similar within these sets. Often one or both of the 1st person plurals have a stem totally unrelated to the singulars.


In languages using a minimal-augmented system, the following pattern as sets:

Without unit-aug/dual: (See Ilocano for pretty much this system analyzed as a singular-plural language. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilokano_g ... l_pronouns)
(1) 1st.min = 1st.sg.ex, 1st.inc.min = 1st.inc.du, 2nd.min = 2nd.sg;
(2)1st.aug = 1st.pl.ex, 1st.inc.aug = 1st.pl.inc, 2nd.aug = 2nd.pl


With unit-aug/dual:
(1) 1st.ex.min = 1st.sg.ex, 1st.inc.min = 1st.inc.du, 2nd.min = 2nd.sg;
(2) 1st.ex.unit-aug = 1st.du.ex, 1st.inc.unit-aug = 1st.paucal(trial?).inc, 2nd.unit-aug = 2nd.du;
(3) 1st.ex.aug = 1st.pl.ex, 1st.inc.aug = 1st.pl.inc, 2nd.aug = 2nd.pl.

Here again, Case/number markers in this languages often -- though certainly not always -- are most similar within these sets. So, a "trial" inclusive will look like duals elsewhere in the language.

Note how 1st.inc is almost treated like a separate person. Languages with systems like this often show up as having odd number systems in the 1st persons (and sometimes other pronouns). Notice for instance the paucal~trial. For this type of language it seems better to analyze a minimal augmented system rather than to have a "missing" singular and a strange trial number, which exists no-where else in the language.

Tongan's pronouns don't quite fit into the reanalysis. Note that it is instead the 1st.ex pronouns that seem to be bucking the system. The source notes that it appears semantically that the various first singulars are a sort of T-V pair.

EDIT: Further notes on minimal-augmented number systems -- pt. 2.

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Essentially the pronoun morphemes on independent and clitic pronouns are highly fused for person and number – as well as deixis for 3d person, which I skip over here.
I do not like to think of the combinations person as seperate persons, but rather combinations of (1) person features: speaker, listener and/or non-speech act participan; and (2) number: minimal or associatively augmented.
So, the person.number series can be arranged as:

1+2 (+2) -- minimal: speaker plus one listener; augmented: speaker associated with more than one listeners.
2+2 (+2) -- minimal: two listeners; augmented: more than two associated listeners.
1 (+3) -- minimal: one speaker; augmented: speaker associated with at least one non-speech act participant.
2 (+3) -- minimal: one listener; augmented: one listener associated with at least one non-speech act participant.
3 (+3) -- minimal: one non-speech act participant; augmented: associated non-speech act participants
Morphologically, the language does not make a 1+2 (+3) distinction or other finer grained variations; however, forms could be easily made with coordination.

Note that minimal and augmented are not the same as singular and non-singular; so, for example, the “first person inclusive” (1+2 below) with two speech act participants is logically a dual but here is a minimal since it patterns with 2nd “singular” (2 below) and 3rd “singular” (3 below). The language also use verbal number marking to note whether a minimum or augmented number of participants are involved; so, for example, |1.min 2.min SAW.min| AND |1st.min 2+3.aug SAW.aug| are valid but |*1st.min 2nd.aug SAW.min| does not.

(3) Spatial Deixis.

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In most languages (all natlangs?), spatial deixis is restricted to the 3rd person. In TEST, spatial deixis is also found in 1-3 and 2-3 Associatively Augmented pronouns for diachronic reasons -- essentially the plural form in these persons is derived from a fused form of "these.people" and "those.people" respectively.

1-2 ----- 2-2 ----- 1-3 ----- 2-3 ----- 3-3 ----- kin/Names ----- Dyadic Kin ----- Paired nouns ----- common nouns
.....................<-----------------Plural Spatial Deixis ------------------->................................................
..............................<-Sing. Deixis->....................................................................................

Again, for example: */t-ĩ:-lõŋg-0/ --> /tĩ:lõŋg/ == 2nd-3rd.prox.pl.nom or 2-3rd.aug.prox.nom.

(4) Differential ~ Quirky Subject (and Object Marking).

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TEST, as with most of my projects, has a tangled morphosyntactic alignment. In addition, Actors and Subjects are frequently marked with non-core cases or as PPs.

Subjects can be marked according to two variables: (1) experiencer v. non-experiencer (i.e. typical agents), and (2) volitional v. non-volitional. The occurrence of Experiencer A/S is largely selected by the verb but may occur semantically with others. Volition is largely semantically selected; however, this pattern of marking may also overlap with certain antecedents.

(1) Volitional Non-experiencers (Agents) are not marked and occur in nominate or ergative case.
(2) Volitional Experiencers are not marked and occur as dative PPs.
(3) Non-volitional Non-experiencers are marked and occur as instrumental PPs.
(4) Non-volitional experiencers are marked and occur in locative case or as locative PPs.

(5) Classifiers.

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A large number of languages have numeral classifiers (a/k/a counter words). Further possibilities exist, such as the classificatory verbs in certain Athabascan languages (a/k/a handling verbs), which classify the object of a verb in terms of shape, size, etc. Also of note are the possessive classifiers of certain Oceanic languages such as Pohnpeian.

Classification in TEST falls into two systems. Within these respective systems, classifiers forms largely overlap and occur in differing roles.

System I: (Possessive Classifiers (of the Possessed and Relational Subtypes) and Comitative Classifiers)

The possessive classifiers fuse with the genitive preposition and classify humans, particularly relatives, clothing and personal adornments, and body parts. Comitative classifiers fuse with the comitative preposition and classify humans, again particularly relatives.

System II: (Verbal Classifiers, Locative Classifiers, and Demonstrative Classifiers)

The verbal classifiers fuse with the verb (or certain participles in AUX-constructions) and classify body parts on one hand or location and relative motion and position on the other. Locative classifiers cover the same field but fuse with locative postpositions (never with the locative case). Finally Demonstrative classifiers fuse with demonstratives (and certain pronouns) and classify location and relative motion.

EDIT: rant of mine about noun classifiers and some other stuff for future reference.

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I’m a bit confused on what you are looking for. Gender is, perhaps, not the word you are looking for. Can you give some more examples please?

“Classification” marked on verbs typically refers to classificatory verbs (some Na-Dene languages), verbal classifier affixes (widespread), classificatory noun incorporation, or noun class agreement on verbs (see Caucasian verb prefixes or nonfinite verbs in many languages). All of these strategies agree with arguments rather than assign marking to those arguments as you are suggesting.

So, for example, verbal classifier affixes might appear as:

3d.INANIM COPULA-stick-like -- “it’s a stick”

3d.ANIM 3d.INANIM break-IMPFV COPULA-horizontal.plane “he is breaking a horizontal object” or perhaps, “he is plowing”

Or classificatory incorporation example might appear as:

3d.ANIM stick-break-IMPFV COPULA “he is stick-breaking” or “he is breaking sticks”

Similarly – but moving from sticks to humans – you might have:

3d.ANIM woman-see-IMPFV COPULA “he is woman-seeing” or “he sees a woman,” etc.
The type of cla


Here you have something very different. Instead, it seems you have a system where the marked v. unmarked constructions are based on whether the gender of the argument(s) is expected or not. So, as in your first example, “the man sang” is marked (or as you put it: “”man” takes a feminine form”).

Rant one. This reminds me a bit of the marking of the arguments of transitive verbs direct-inverse systems. In D-I systems, variations between marked and unmarked constructions are triggered by variations in the expected animacy or discourse salience of third and sometimes second person constituents. So, for example looking at an animacy based system, “the human kicked the dog” is not marked, but “the dog kicked the human” is marked; or, looking at a discourse based system, “the human (who is the current focus of discourse) kicked the other human” is unmarked, but “the human (who has been background) kicked the other human (who is the current focus of discourse)” is marked.

Rant two. Another thing this reminds me a bit of is noun classifiers which are not to be confused with gender or noun classes. Noun classifiers typically have a discoursed based role. Generally, a noun classifier is related to the classified noun in a generic-specific pair; so, for example, you might have “respected.human uncle” or, using multiple noun classifiers, “small animal.object threat.to.life snake.” Depending on the language, once introduced into discourse, either the classified noun or the classifier may be left off. Languages vary on the use of noun classifiers a good bit. So in a following text you might get :

Sentence 1: “respected.human uncle small animal.object threat.to.life snake see.PFV – uncle saw a snake.

Sentence 2 (meta-language A, which drops the classified noun while it remains topical): “respected.human small animal.object kill.IMPF. – “he is killing it” ~ "the respected one is killing the little thing"

Sentence 2 (meta-language B, which drops the classifier once the noun is introduced into the discourse): “uncle snake kill.IMPV – uncle (introduced into discourse) is killing the snake (introduced into discourse).


For what you are describing, I could see a system where a noun classifier is required if the noun class of the classified noun is topical – i.e. not the noun class typically associated with the verb. So, for example:

Man-Uncle song sing.IMPF -- "uncle is singing song(s)!!!! (gasp)"
Man-Uncle robbers fight.IMPF -- "uncle is fighting robbers"

But

Woman-aunt song sing.IMPF -- "aunt is singing song(s)"
Woman-aunt robbers fight.IMPF -- "aunt is fighting robbers!!!!"

Or, alternatively,

Sentence 1 "woman-Aunt arrived"
Sentence "sang" -- She sang (here, I assume the meta-language is pro-drop and, since there is no classifier, the A/S must be female so the refernce would fall back to Aunt from the prior sentence)

Sentence 1" "man-Uncle arrived"
Sentence 2: "man(-Uncle) sings" (here, the male classifier must be used since uncle is not the expected A/S of the verb.)



In general, I’d recommend reading “Classifiers” which covers gender/noun classes and much else.

[Salmoneus]

You probably know this, and it needn't mean anything for your conlang, but real-world possessive classifiers (certainly in Austronesian, and iirc elsewhere also) don't tend to classify things by their kind, but by the nature of the relation. Iirc some systems do this by the kind of possession ('mine by right', 'mine naturally', 'mine that I'm borrowing', etc), but the Austronesian languages do it by the purpose of possession - the most fundamental distinction is have-for-eating/drinking vs have-for-other-reasons, with the next most common being a tripartite for-eating/for-drinking/for-other-reason split. This can sometimes be lexical, but usually at least some words can be put with different classifiers to reflect the semantics of the actual situation - so a coconut that you want to drink out of has a different classifier from the one you're going to eat.

[2+3 clusivity]

You probably know this, and it needn't mean anything for your conlang, but real-world possessive classifiers (certainly in Austronesian, and iirc elsewhere also) don't tend to classify things by their kind, but by the nature of the relation.

Cool, thanks for taking notice. I saw you used possessive classifiers in at least an older draft of Rawang Ata.

Several North and South American languages use "possessed classifiers," which look at the function of classified possessum beyond just eating and drinking. Panare is a good example (of a combined possessed/relation system as discussed below): http://books.google.com/books?id=EaqfgI ... ss&f=false (page 82 onward).

EDIT: This is were I got most of my ideas for the possessive classifiers (and also the comitative classifiers by analogy, which as far as I am aware do not exist in natural languages).

Aikhenvald notes in "Classifiers" at 146 that Relational classifiers (the way in which a noun can be possessed) occur with medium frequency and have a small inventory size. Possessed classifiers (animacy, shape, size, etc. of noun) are "common" and their inventory size within a language may be large. She also notes that combined systems of relational and possessed classifiers occur with medium frequency. Finally, several (2-3?) languages occur with possessor classifiers (animacy/humanness).

At 145 she also notes that relational classifiers are linked with alienable/inalienable possession within a language and that they do not occur in multiple classifier system languages. Possessed classifiers occur independently of possession type and are used in multiple classifier languages.

The possessive classifier system I have worked out so far works as so (the first category and generic category form the comitative classifiers):

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Generic

Human: Intimates/children/babies; spouses; other male kin; other female kin; male non-kin; female non-kin.

Non-human:

Artifacts: hanging/loose clothing (shirts, etc.; semantic map: "hanging"); wrapped/synched/tight fitting clothing (semantic map: "wrapped"); undone/messy/undone clothing (semantic map: "other than normal"); looped adornments/names/titles (the later two are lifted from Phonpeian; semantic map: "encircling"); adornment residue (footwear, headwear, scarification, tattoos, etc.).

Bodily and other artifacts: fleshy body-parts (almost a residue class; legs, eyes, etc.); hair (also sheets; blankets; bedding; semantic map: "sheet like"); emotions/perceptions/speech acts.

[2+3 clusivity]

Dyadic Kin and Relationship Terms, Etc..

As discussed above, TEST has both possessive and comitative classifiers, which classify various humans. These are related to an extensive set of dyadic (and triadic) terms.

Dyadic Relations

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Dyadic terms cover not only relatives but also non-kin humans. Examples include: mother.father or mother.child spouse.F.spouse.M. Dyadic terms are also frequently used in anti-dual to refer to one member of the dyad while keeping the other member within the background. For example: mother.father.antidual would refer to one of one's parents but emphasize the importance of that relation or keep the other parent in the background.

"Tryadic" (Triadic?) Polyadic Relations

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A small class of triadic terms also exist, which are built upon a dyad and an individual. For example: [mother.father].child or [maternal-grandfather.maternal-grandmother].mother. Tryadic polyadic terms may also be used with the anti-dual, which refers to either the dyad or the individual.

"Homogenous and Heterogeneous" Body Part Terms -- Dyadic, Tryadic polyadic, and Otherwise

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By default, most body parts are called out in dyadic terms; for example: eye.eye. As with relationship terms, dyadic body part terms can be singled out with the anti-dual.

A distinction is made between homogenous and heterogeneous body part terms. Homogenous terms refer to pair body parts of a single individual. Heterogeneous body part terms can refer to various body parts and the body parts of more than one individual. Heterogeneous terms often come up with idiomatic meanings.

For example: homogeneous.eyes (the eyes of one person); homogeneous.eyes.antidual (the eye of one person); heterogeneous.eyes (the eyes of two individuals ~ perhaps eye contact); similarly, homogeneous.hands (the hand of one person); homogeneous.hands.antidual (the hand of one person); heterogeneous.hands (the hands of two individuals ~ perhaps hand hold or clasped hands). Homogeneous Tryadic polyadic terms are more limited but include: eyes.mouth~teeth.stomach (vitals)

As noted in the possessive classifier section, emotions, perceptions, and speech acts are also lumped in as body parts. Such dyadic terms can also cover concepts such as friendship.friendship or love.hate, again with idiomatic meanings. For the latter example, consider the variation between heterogeneous and homogeneous pairs!

Phonology.

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Standard Phonemes

Please note, the phonemes marked with : should be interpreted as strong--fortis in the sense of louder and longer--and not as simply geminate. The fortis distinction is found at the bilabial, dental, and glottal positions. Conceptually, /d:/ is paired with /l/.

/m(b)ʙ m:(b)ʙ n(d)r n:(d)r ɳ(ɖ)ɽ/
/ʙ ʙ: r r: ɽ/
/m m: n n: ɲ ɦ̃ ɦ̃:/
/ʋ ʋ: l j ɦ ɦ:/
/mb m:b nd n:d ɳɖ/
/p p: t t: ʈ k/
/d:/

My notation currently follows IPA with the exception of /j/ and /ʋ/ being <y> and <v> respectively. If anyone knows a good way to represent /ʙ/, please share.

/i: ĩ: ʉ: ʉ̃: u: ũ:/
/ɪ ə ʊ/
/e: ẽ: o: õ:/
/ɛ: a: ã: ɔ:/

Acceptable syllables follow the following pattern:

C(r, ʋ, y, , ɦ, ɦ̃)V(F1)
Where, F1 = m, m:, n, n:, r, r: p, t, d, ʈ, k, mb, nd, ŋg

Phonaesthemes

In addition to the core phonemes, the following additional phonaesthemes occur in a highly productive class of onomatopoeic and sound symbolic terms:

/mbv, m:bv, pf, pf:, ndz, ts, ts:/

Phonaesthemic words in addition to having greater possible phonemes have freer phonotactics. Phonaesthemic syllables typically occur in reduplicated pairs and appear roughly in the following form:

C1(R1)V(C2).(p(R1)V(C2)).(affixes)
Where R1 = r, ʋ, y, , ɦ, ɦ̃

Harmony and Stress

Stress is word initial and trochaic for now.

Words are also subject to anticipatory nasal harmony. Vowels and consonants fall into three categories: targets; transparents, and blockers. Targets are subject to harmony and allow it to spread. Transparents are not subject to harmony but allow it to spread. Blockers are neither subject to harmony nor allow it to spread. Vowels affected by harmony are nasalized and consonants are turned to nasal stops. Vowels, glottals, and glides are targets. Liquids and pure nasals are transparents. Stops are blockers. Pre-nasalized stops start harmony but are not affected themselves; therefore, they act similarly to transparents. Harmony is triggered by nasals and pre-nasalized stops.

[2+3 clusivity]

Morphosyntactic Alignment.

Case Marking.

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TEST's case marking is split based upon Aspect. Case marking is Nominative-accusative if the verb is in a non-perfective aspect. Otherwise, generally, case marking operates on ergative-absolutive basis. Nominative and absolutive are unmarked; accusative is optionally marked. As noted below, ergative marking is not available for certain verbs.

Verb Agreement. Now with edits for clarity.

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TEST's verb agreement is split based upon person and aspect. Perfective verbs show nominative-accusative agreement (i.e. A/S agreement) if the A/S is 2-3 or higher on the person hierarchy [towards 1-2]. Lower persons [i.e. 3-3], common nouns, etc. [receive] ergative-absolutive [verb] agreement.

Differential A/S Case Marking.

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TEST features differential case marking (sometimes called "quirky case") on both A/S and P. Differential A/S marking -- the more simple of the two systems -- roughly encodes A/S which fall into non-canonical (less agent-like) thematic roles. Note that differential A/S marking and ergative marking are typically mutually exclusive on verbs that select differentially marked A/S. Some verbs pragmatically select such marking, but ergative marking takes priority.

(1) "agents" marked as nominative or ergative.
(2) "experiencers" marked as a dative PP; S of alienable possession predicates; A/S of misc verbs -- typically psych verbs.
(3) "accidental agents ~ forces" marked as an instrumental PP; A/S of misc verbs.
(4) "accidental experiencers" marked with locative case or a locative PP; S of inherent quality predicates; S of temporary~alienable possession predicates; A/S of misc verbs.

Expressives: Sound Symbolism, Ideophones, &c.

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Expressives form a distinct and extremely flexible word class within TEST. Expressives occur with a greater set of phonemes and have freer phonotactic constraints.

The semantic range of expressives in TEST is broad and includes:
(1) Sensory perceptions: visual, auditory, olfactory, and – to a much lesser degree—gustatory.
(2) tactile: heat (bodily and otherwise), vibration~heart rhythms, texture, malleability/ductility
(2) Dimensions (small, large, skinny, fat – typically focusing on atypical dimensions)
(3) Emotive: excitement, attention, fear, etc. (often connected idiomatically with internal bodily phenomena. E.g. racing heart)
(4) manner of motion
(5) representation of non-verbal cues, sounds, expressions (grunts, waves of the hand, etc.)
(6) Weather phenomena

Expressives can occur in various position within a sentence:
(1) As nouns~adverbs they can occur following the first full phrase -- typically the A/S (P)NP or a fronted adjunct's phrase. In this position, they often supply a manner of motion. In this position, they are typically reduplicated and do not require derivational or inflectional morphology.
(2) As nouns~adjectives they can occur as part of a complex verb, but typically do not form manner of motion verbs. In this position they are optionally reduplicated and require inflectional morphology.
(3) Sentence initially or -- more rarely -- at the left most-edge of a phrase. In this position they are optionally reduplicated and do not require derivational or inflectional morphology.
(4) Wherever nouns may occur. In this position they are rarely reduplicated and always with inflectional morphology.
(5) Wherever adjectives may occur. In this position are often reduplicated and sometimes triplicated and optionally occur with inflectional morphology.

The verbs are dead! Long live the light verbs! Now with edits for the new phonology.

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TEST has very few "simple" verbs: the copular verbs: /H-/ "be," /ɦy-/ "become," /a:-/ "go/move.to," /yɦ-/ "come/move.away;" and /və:-/ "say," /ksə:-/ "do," and /d-/ "give." I anticipate having "come" crowd out "become." EDIT: haha. /ɦy-/ "become," and /yɦ-/ "come/move.away" don't crowd each other out. They simply merge as [yʱ-] . I am still not sure if "give" is worth keeping. Give is worth keeping.

"Complex" verbs are formed by a combination of a [verb stem,] noun, or adjective (some of which were previously simple verbs) with the simple verbs -- primarily /-H-/ "be," /ɦy-/ "become," and /ksə:-/ "do." Expressives can also be used to form verbs together with /və:-/ "say" or /kə:-/ "do."

Finite and aspect marked complex verbs take the form: noun/adjective/expressive-aspect-Gender.Number verb.mood-number.person (person and number agreement is essentially with the leftmost unmarked NP or an ergative but highly animate PNP)

[WeepingElf]

This is nice and complex, and has the potential of growing into a truly terrffic conlang. Keep it up and rock on!

[2+3 clusivity]

I am at it again.

Recently I have been tackling my conlanging nightmare, verbs. In an attempt not to re-lex English, I have been using Levin's English Verb Classes and Alternations to isolate certain classes and patterns of verbs. With the understanding that her book, of course, covers classes of English verbs, I have come up with a rough draft of a number of classes and how they will be handled by TEST. These classes roughly line up with Levin's classes, which I am still not entirely pleased with. I am still changing this section, and, as you will notice, I have not actually added any actual lexical items yet.

As discussed above, TEST has a limited set of light verbs, which form verb complexes together with either a noun, adjective, or expressive. Additionally, satellites can be bound to certain nouns, adjectives, and expressives. The operation of these satellites will be discussed in my next post covering verbs of motion.

Verb Complexes Involving the Body.

Bodily Processes .

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Type I (“Hiccup”):
<> Semantics: typically involve the face and/or respiration.
<> Abstract Frame:
---<> S(o) Intransitive
---<> S.NP.LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) _______ BE/DO/GET
<>Argument Structure:
---<> S Status: Accidental experiencer subjects (locative PP or case marking).
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a resultative phrase

Type II (“Breathe”):
<> Semantics: emitting or taking a substance into the body;
<> Abstract Frame:
---<> S(a) = A Ambitransitive.
---<> S/A.NP.LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) _______ BE(intrans)/DO(tras)
---<> May not be passivized.
<> Argument Structure
---<> S/A Status: Accidental experiencer subjects (locative PP or case marking)
---<> O Status: Optional substance object.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes marking by a path satellite (on, up, down, out, in, etc.)

Bodily Signs/Gestures.

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Type I (“Wink”):
<> Semantics: involving a specific body-part
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) = A Ambitransitive.
---<> S/A.NP.NOM/INST ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) (Body-part satellite.)_______ SAY/BE(intrans)/DO(trans)
---<> May not be passivized.
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: May not take experiencer S/A marking.
---<> O: Optional body-part or reaction object
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP AT communicant/reaction object/either; PP TO communicant if body-part involved is the hands or eyes; reaction manner expressive.
<> Satellite Structure: optionally takes a body-part satellite in intransitive clauses or with a reaction object.

Type II (“waggle”):
<> Semantics: involving a specific body-part
<> Frame:
---<> transitive
---<> S/A.NP.NOM/INST ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) O.NP _______ SAY/DO
---<> May not be passivized.
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: May not take experiencer S/A marking.
---<> O: mandatory body-part O.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP AT communicant/reaction object/either.

Type III (“bow”):
<> Semantics: non-verbal expressions: involving the whole body or a complex gesture
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) = A Ambitransitive.
---<> S/A.NP.NOM/INST ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) _______ SAY/BE(intrans)/DO(trans)
---<> May not be passivized.
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: May not take experiencer S/A marking.
---<> O Status: Optionally takes reaction objects.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP TO communicant.

Nonverbal Expressions/Cues.

More: show

Type I: (“Frown”)
<> Semantics: typically involve the face or respiration.
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) = A Ambitransitive.
---<> S/A.NP.DAT/ LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) (Body-part satellite.)_______ SAY/BE(intrans)/DO(trans)
---<> May not be passivized.
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: May only take experiencer S/A.
---<> O Status: optional body-part or reaction object.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP AT communicant/reaction object/either; reaction manner expressive.
<> Satellite Structure: optionally takes a body-part satellite in intransitive clauses or with a reaction object.

Involuntary Bodily States.

More: show

Type I (“flinch”):
<> Semantics: involving the whole body or a complex expression
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) intransitive.
---<> S.NP.LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) _______ SAY/BE
<> Argument Structure
---<> S Status: Accidental experiencer subjects (locative PP or case marking).
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: PP AT reaction object; reaction manner expressive.

Type II (“Convulse”)
<> Semantics: involving the whole body, a body-part, or a complex expression
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) intransitive
---<> S.NP.LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (body-part satellite.)_______ SAY/BE
<> Argument Structure
---<> S Status: Accidental experiencer subjects (locative PP or case marking).
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes PP AT/FROM reaction object; reaction manner expressive.
<> Satellite Structure: optionally takes a body-part satellite in intransitive clauses or with a reaction object.

Type III (“Suffocate”)
<> Semantics: involving defects in respiration
<> Frame:
---<> S(o) = O ambitransitive:
---<> S/A.NP.DAT/LOCorNOM/INST ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) _______ BE(intrans)/BECOME(intrans)/DO(trans)
---<> Cannot be passivized
<> Argument Structure
---<> A Status: optionally takes a non-experiencer A
---<> S/O Status: experiencer subjects.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes optionally may take a resultative phrase; reaction manner expressive.

Bodily States and Bodily Damage.

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Type I (“Pain”):
<> Semantics: general bodily discomforts.
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) = A ambitransitive
---<> S/A.NP.INST ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) _______ BE(intrans)/BECOME(intrans)/DO(trans)
---<> Cannot be passivized
<> Argument Structure
---<> S/A Status: involuntary body-part agent (instrumental).
---<> O Status: optionally takes an experiencer O.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP FROM reaction object.

Type II (“Tingle”):
<> Semantics: specific body-part discomforts.
<> Frame:
---<> S(o ) intransitive.
---<> S.NP.INST ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) _______ BE/BECOME
---<> Cannot be passivized
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S status: involuntary body-part agent (instrumental).
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP FROM reaction object.

Type III (“Hurt”):
<> Semantics: specific body-part or a reflexive discomforts
<> Frame:
---<> transitive
---<> S/A.NP.INSR/LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) O.NP _______ BE/BECOME
---<> may not be passivized
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: Accidental As.
---<> O Structure: mandatory body-part or reflexive object
<> Optionally takes: n/a

Change of Bodily-State.

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Type I (“Faint”):
<> Semantics: changes in health and consciousness
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) Intransitive
---<> S.NP.LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) _______ BECOME
<> Argument Structure
---<> S Status: accidental experiencer S
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes a PP AT/FROM reaction object

Type II (“Snooze”):
<> Semantics: various manners of sleeping
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) Intransitive
---<> S.NP.DAT/LOC ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) _______ BE/BECOME
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S Status: Accidental or non-accidental experiencer subjects (locative or dative)
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: TBD

Verbs of Grooming and Bodily Care.

Care for the Entire Body.

More: show

Type I (“Dress”):
<> Semantics: dressing/caring for an expressed or unexpressed reflexive object or body-part or for another.
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) = A ambitransitive:
---<> S.NP.NOM ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) _______ BE(intrans)/BECOME(intrans)/DO(trans)/GET(trans)
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: intentional agent (Nominative)
---<> O Status: animate, reflexive, or reflexive body part O
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes :TBD.

Type II (“Groom”):
<> Semantics: dressing/caring for another.
<> Frame:
---<> Transitive:
---<> S/A.NP.NOM ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) O.NP _______ DO
<> Argument Structure
---<> S/A Status: intentional agent (Nominative)
---<> O Status: cannot take a reflexive or reflexive body-part O.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: TBD.

Care for Specific Bodily Parts.

More: show

Type I (“Floss”):
<> Semantics: dressing/caring for an expressed or unexpressed body-part; A may or may not be the body-part possessor.
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) = A Ambitransitive
---<> S/A.NP.NOM ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (O.NP) (body-part satellite.)_______ DO
---<> Cannot be passivized
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: intentional agent (Nominative)
---<> O: optional body-part O.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: TBD.
<> Satellite Structure: optionally takes a body-part satellite in intransitive clauses.

Type II (“Comb”):
<> Semantics: dressing/caring for a body-part
<> Frame:
---<> Transitive:
---<> S/A.NP.NOM ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) O.NP (body-part satellite.)_______ DO/GET
---<> Cannot be passivized
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: intentional agent (Nominative)
---<> O Status: animate, reflexive, or body-part O.
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: TBD.
<> Satellite Structure: optionally takes a body-part satellite in intransitive clauses or a non-body-part O.

Type III (“Braid”):
<> Semantics: dressing/caring for a body-part
<> Frame:
---<> Transitive:
---<> S/A.NP.NOM ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) O.NP (body-part satellite.)_______ DO/GET
---<> Cannot be passivized
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S/A Status: intentional agent (Nominative).
---<> O Status: animate O; cannot take a reflexive or reflexive body-part O;
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: TBD.
<> Satellite Structure: optionally takes a body-part satellite in intransitive clauses.

Dressing and Adornment.

More: show

Type I (“Phases of Dressing”):
<> Semantics: phases of being dressed in specific types of clothing.
<> Frame:
---<> S(a) intransitive
---<> S.NP.NOM ( . . . adjuncts . . . ) (path.ground satellite.)_______ DO/GET
<> Argument Structure:
---<> S Status: intentional agent (Nominative or Accusative)
<> Adjunct Structure: optionally takes: TBD.

Next: Verbs of motion

[2+3 clusivity]

I’ve been wrangling with TEST’s movement verbs for a bit and have gotten bogged down. I am trying to work TEST as a verb framed language with regard to at least verbs of movement. As a speaker of English, this has taken some thought and I still feel that I am falling back into a satellite framed system.

To pass the time, I am taking a crack at fleshing out TEST’s baroque pronoun system. TEST’s pronominal system is designed to be emerging from an earlier agglutinative phase and becoming progressively more synthetic. If you hate morphemes or heavily morpheme based design, then tl; dr: you will hate this.

The pronominal series have roughly the following form:

PRIOR DRAFT.

More: show

Root1: [root theme formant: *m,*ɦ, *t, *n, *i, *u, etc.]
Modern Augmented~plural Infix: <ɦ̃>
Root2: ([deixis root theme formant: *u(M) (default) or *i(M)])
“Vous” slot: [-*m-] this form is now bound to the root complex.
Fossilized Augmented formants: ([<*loŋg> or <*d:>]) these forms are now bound to the root complex.
Case.Number slot: various.

3d (+ 3d) Pronoun/Demonstrative Series. These provide a good launching point into the remainder of the pronoun series.

Proximal. the primary formant of the proximal 3d person series is /*i/ -> /i: ~ j/.

Minimal/Tu:
direct case: /*iM-Ø/ --> /ĩ:/
oblique stem: /*i-e/ --> /j-e:/ [je:]
locative case: /*i-ɛ/ --> /j-ɛ:/ [jɛ:]

Augmented/Tu:
direct case: /*i<loŋg>Ø/ --> /i:lo:ŋg-Ø/ [i:loŋg]
oblique stem: /*i<loŋg>eM/ --> /i:lo:ŋg-ẽ:/ [i:loŋgẽ:]
locative case: /*i<loŋg>ɛ/ --> / i:lo:ŋg-ɛ:/ [i:loŋgɛ:]

Augmented/Vous:
direct case & oblique stem: /*i-eM/ --> /j<ɦ̃>ẽ:/ [jɦ̃ẽ:]
locative case: /*i-ɛ/ --> / j<ɦ̃>ɛ:/ [jɦ̃ɛ:]

Distal. The distal series is similar; however, the primary formant of the distal 3d person series is /*u/ -> /u: ~ ʋ/ rather than /*i/ -> /i: ~ j/. For example: augmented/Vous direct & oblique case: /*u-eM/ --> /u:<ɦ̃>ẽ:/ [ʋɦ̃ẽ:].

1st + 2d Pronoun Series.

Minimal/Tu :
direct case: /*m-uM<d:>Ø/ --> /mũ:d:-Ø/ [mũd:]
oblique stem: /*m-uM<d:> e/ --> /mũ:d:-e:/ [mũ:d:e:]
locative case: /*m-uM<d:>ɛ/ --> /mũ:d:-ɛ:/ [mũ:d:ɛ:]

Minimal/Vous:
direct case: /*ɦ-uM-m<d:>Ø/ --> / ɦũ:nd:-Ø/ [ɦũnd:]
oblique stem: /*ɦ-uM-m<d:>eM/ --> /ɦũ:nd-e:/ [ɦũ:.ndẽ:]
locative case: /*ɦ-uM-m<d:>ɛ/ --> /ɦũ:nd-ɛ:/ [ɦũ:.ndɛ:]

Augmented/Vous:
direct case: /*ɦ-uM-m-Ø/ --> / ɦ<ɦ̃>ũ:m-Ø/ [ɦ̃:ũm]
oblique stem: /*ɦ-uM-m-eM/ --> /ɦ<ɦ̃>ũ:m-ẽ:/ [ɦ̃:ũ:mẽ:]
locative case: /*ɦ-uM-m-ɛ/ --> /ɦ<ɦ̃>ũ:m-ɛ:/ [ɦ̃:ũ:mɛ:]

2d (+ 2d) Pronoun Series.

Minimal/Tu:
direct case: /*t-uM-Ø/ --> /nũ:-Ø/ [nũ:] (/*t/ -> /n/ shift by analogy with Vous forms and 1st (+3d) Minimal/Tu’s irregular direct case)
oblique stem: /*t-u-e/ --> /tʋ-e:/ [tʋe:]
locative case: /*t-u-ɛ/ --> / tʋ-ɛ:/ [tʋɛ:]

Minimal/Vous:
direct case: /*n-u-Ø/ --> /nu:-Ø/ [nu:]
oblique stem: /*n-u-e/ --> /nʋ-e:/ [nʋe:]
locative case: /*n-u-ɛ/ --> / nʋ-ɛ:/ [nʋɛ:]

Augmented/Vous: this series is formed similarly to the 1st + 2d augmented series; however, the primary formant is /n/ rather than /ɦ/; the nasal formant does not coalesce with the modern plural infix. For example: the direct is formed as /* n-uM-m-Ø/ --> /n<ɦ̃>ũ:m-Ø/ [nɦ̃ũm]

1st (+ 3d) Pronoun Series.

Distance Neutral.

Minimal/Tu: (Notice that this series is similar to 2d + 2d Minimal/Tu and 3d (+3d) Minimal/Tu)
direct case: /*ɦ-uM-Ø/ --> /ɦũ:-Ø/ [ɦũ:] (irregular /*ɦ / drawn previously from analogy with the 1st + 3d minimal and augmented Vous forms)
oblique stem: /*m-e/ --> /m-e:/
locative case: /*m-ɛ/ --> / m-ɛ:/

Minimal/Vous:
direct case: /*ɦ-u-Ø/ --> /ɦu:-Ø/ [ɦu:]
oblique stem: /*ɦ-e/ --> /ɦ-e:/
locative case: /*ɦ-ɛ/ --> /ɦ-ɛ:/

Proximal.

Augmented/Tu: this series is formed like the 3d (+3d) proximal augmented/Tu but with the addition of an /*m/ formant. For example: direct case: /*m-i-loŋg-Ø/ --> /mi:lo:ŋg-Ø/ [mi:loŋg].

Augmented/Vous: this series is formed like the 3d (+3d) proximal augmented/Vous but with the addition of an /*ɦ/ formant which coalesces with the modern plural infix. For example: direct case: direct case & oblique stem: /*ɦ-i-eM/ --> /ɦ<ɦ̃>i:-ẽ:/ [ɦ̃:jẽ:].

Distal. the augmented Tu and Vous series parallel the proximal 1st (+3d) and 3d (+3d) series but with an internal /*u/ formant rather than an /*i/ formant. For example, direct case & oblique stem: /*ɦ-u-eM/ --> /ɦ<ɦ̃>u:-ẽ:/ [ɦ̃:ʋẽ:].

2d (+ 3d) Pronoun Series.

Proximal.

Minimal/Tu:
direct case: /*t-iM<d:>Ø/ --> /mĩ:d:-Ø/ [nĩd:] (/*t/ -> /n/ shift as in other parallel forms)
oblique stem: /*t-iM<d:> e/ --> /mĩ:d:-e:/ [tĩ:d:e:]
locative case: /*t-iM<d:>ɛ/ --> /mĩ:d:-ɛ:/ [tĩ:d:ɛ:]

Minimal/Vous:
direct case: /*n-iM-m<d:>Ø/ --> / nĩ:nd:-Ø/ [nĩnd:]
oblique stem: /*n-iM-m<d:>eM/ --> /nĩ:nd-e:/ [nĩ:.ndẽ:]
locative case: /*n-iM-m<d:>ɛ/ --> /nĩ:nd-ɛ:/ [nĩ:.ndɛ:]

Augmented/Tu:
direct case: /*t-i-loŋg-Ø/ --> / ti:lo:ŋg-Ø/ [ti:loŋg]
oblique stem: /* t-i-loŋg-eM/ --> / ti:lo:ŋg-ẽ:/ [ti:loŋgẽ:]
locative case: /* t-i-loŋg-ɛ/ --> / ti:lo:ŋg-ɛ:/ [ti:loŋgɛ:]

Augmented/Vous:
direct case: /*n-iM-m-Ø/ --> / n<ɦ̃>ĩ:m-Ø/ [nɦ̃:ĩ:m]
oblique stem: /*n-iM-m-eM/ --> /n<ɦ̃> ĩ:m-ẽ:/ [nɦ̃:ĩ:.mẽ:]
locative case: /*n-iM-m-ɛ/ --> /n<ɦ̃> ĩ:m-ɛ:/ [nɦ̃: ĩ:.mɛ:]

Distal. The distal 2d (+3d) series is formed similarly to the proximal 2d (+3d) series but with a /*u/ formant rather than an /*i/ formant.

Interrogative, Relative, Etc. Pronouns.
TBA: but these series will parallel the 3d (+3d) distal series.

[2+3 clusivity]

After reading through Nort's awesome page, I was inspired to reboot this. I haven't done much in about a half-year, so some fresh starting was in order.

---

Revamped Phoneme Inventory. A bit PIE-ish in manner (shout-out to w'elf, I think, for: https://www.academia.edu/1538887/Typolo ... o-European):

More: show

L: /m~m̥, n~n̥, N~N̥/
C: /p, t̪, ts, ʈʂ, tʃ, k/
Cʰ: /pʰ, t̪ʰ, tsʰ, ʈʂʰ, tʃʰ, kʰ/ [?ʰp, ʰt̪, ʰts, ʰʈʂ, ʰtʃ, ʰk]
Cʱ: /bʱ, d̪ʱ, dzʱ, ɖʐʱ, dʒʱ, gʱ/
F: /s, ʂ, ʃ, H/
F: /z, ʐ, ʒ/ [not sure if these should also be breathy or simply modal voiced]
L: /w~ʊ̯~ʊ, l~l̥, ɻ~ə˞, j~ɪ̯~ɪ, ɦ~ɦ̥/ [Again, with the exception of /ɦ/, not sure if these should also be breathy or simply modal voiced]
V: /ə:, ə, a, a:/

Basic root structure: (C)(C)(L)(V)(C), where if there is no V then there must be a vocalic L occupying the nucleus. I am still thinking about the phonotactics; however, I think syllables cannot contain more than one Cʱ and nasal L -- all of the voiced L and F should probably actually be breathy with allophonic full voicing.

Where /H/ is glottal fricative unspecified for voicing and /N/ is a placeless nasal surfacing as nasalization of preceding vowels V_# and a homorganic stop V_C(H). I might re-analyze the retroflex series as clusters of dental stops and alveolar affricates plus + /ɻ/. /H/ is the counter-part to the Cʰ series, while ɦ~ɦ straddles the approximant and Cʱ series. C has no counterpart; though, I expect [ʔ] to surface euphonically at least #_V.

Reworked Pronominal/PRO-clitic/Verb-enclitic system:

More: show

Note that /H/ acts as both a pluralizing infix and -- with heavy allophony -- as the copular stem! /ɪ-/ and /ʊ-/ also do double duty as both Tu~Vous prefixes and proximal v. distal prefixes. At this phase, stress & vocalic grades are fixed on the second syllable from the left edge of a word -- interacting heavily with the deixis prefixes. On purpose, I have pushed deixis far up the animacy hierarchy.

EDIT: Reworked Pronominal/PRO-clitic/Verb-enclitic system with allophony:

More: show

Personal Pronouns Re-done.JPG (150.78 KiB) Viewed 11911 times

EDIT: Relative, Corelative, and Interrogative Pronouns:

More: show

Relative Clause Strategies.

Embedded – Precede the modified NP; always occur unreduced (occur in the adjective slot(?) but further out)

Embedded – Follow the modified NP; optionally reduced

Corelative Clause Strategy.

Non-embedded (adjoined or internally headed?) – precede the modified matrix clause; notably, contain two (P)NPs proceeded by correlative pronouns corresponding to two demonstratives in the matrix clause; the correlative pronouns agree with the modified demonstrative in the matrix clause

Interrogative pronouns. Nothing fancy.

Misc Pronouns.JPG (113.53 KiB) Viewed 11866 times

And . . . otherwise . . . I am still thinking about the applicability of these:

1-2 ----- 2-2 ----- 1-3 ----- 2-3 ----- 3-3 ----- kin/Names ----- Dyadic Kin ----- Paired nouns ----- common nouns
<-------------------------------------------------minimal----------------------------------------------------------------------->
<2 Assoc Aug>...................................................................................................................
.....................<------------------3 Associatively Augmented------------>.............................................
....................................................<-----------------Additively Augmented--------------------------------->
.......................................................................<------------Anti-Dual------------->......................


1-2 ----- 2-2 ----- 1-3 ----- 2-3 ----- 3-3 ----- kin/Names ----- Dyadic Kin ----- Paired nouns ----- common nouns
.....................<-----------------Plural Spatial Deixis ------------------->................................................
..............................<-Sing. Deixis->....................................................................................
.......................................<Sg.DXS>...................................................................................

[2+3 clusivity]

Numerals.

Again, a glimmer of PIE creative influence on the root shapes. Like [+3] PRO-forms above, numerals also have mandatory spatial deixis marking – the deictic extenders are largely isomorphic with the enclitic [+3] PRO-forms. Several forms show doubled or stacked deixis marking. I am not sure if the numerals beyond One will have case marking and whether such case marking of the higher numerals will be noun-like or adjective-like. I expect that One will serve double duty as a demonstrative or demonstrative-stem if those forms will be different than the [+3] PRO-forms – not sure yet.

On a phonetic note, as these forms increasingly show, breathy voicing and aspiration play parallel roles in <-H-> Augmentation -- perhaps fossilized and moving towards being phonemic. My orthographic instinct is towards marking /H/ as aspiration where applicable and leaving [ʱ] as just that. Also note the velar plus alveolar sequences -- I may need to tweak the phonotactics.

Cardinal Numerals:

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One: /(ɪ̯-)Hə́-ɪ̯/ [jʱə́ɪ̯ ~ hə́ɪ̯] ~ /(ʊ-)Hə́-ʊ̯/ [ʋʱə́ʊ̯ ~ hə́ʊ̯]
Two: /lə́-ɪ/ ~ / lə́-ʊ/ Two: /kə́-ɪ/ ~ / kə́-ʊ/
Three: /ʈʂə́-ɪ/ ~ /ʈʂə́-ʊ/ & /ʈʂ-ɪə́/ ~ /ʈʂ-ʊə́/
Four: /lH-ɪ̯ə́N/ ~ /lH-ʊ̯áN-ʊ̯/
Five: /pá-ɪ̯/ ~ /pá-ʊ̯/
Six: /ʈʂH-ɪ̯ə́N/ [ʈʂʰɪ̯ə́N] ~ /ʈʂH-ʊ̯ə́N-ʊ̯/ [ʈʂʰʊ̯əʊN̯]
Seven: /(ks)ɪ.ksə́-(ɪ̯) / ~ /(ks)ʊ.ksə́-(ʊ̯)/
Eight: /(tsH)ɪ.tsH-á(ɪ̯)/ ~ /(tsH)ʊ.tsHá-(ʊ̯)/
Nine: /(k)tsɪ̯k.tsá/ ~ /(k)tsʊ̯k.tsá /
Ten: / pH-ɪ̯áN ~ pH-ʊ̯áN-ʊ̯/
Eleven: /Hɪ-.pʰá-ɪ̯/ & /Hʊ-.pʰá-ʊ̯/
* * *

Ordinal Numerals:

More: show

One – three, five, seven, nine, eleven and higher = cardinal + /-m/
Four, six, eight, ten = cardinal + /-n̥/ with de-nasalization of the preceding syllable.

Nouns:

This will require a bit of thought. I think that deixis marking will be -- depending on class -- mandatory, optional, or blocked. The move away from deixis marking will coincide with increased animacy~definiteness.

[2+3 clusivity]

A bit on (P)NP Syntax and Nominal Morphology:

Basic P(NP) frames:

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(Determiner*) (AP) pronoun** (POSS PP) (COM PP) (LOC/Time PP)

Determiner* (AP) nominal*** (POSS PP) (COM PP) (LOC/Time PP)

*Place-holder term for either a demonstrative, quantifier, or cardinal numeral. Demonstratives are isomorphic with 3-3 pronouns. Demonstrative classifiers are enclitic to this slot -- Wackernagel's slot I guess.. Demonstrative classifiers cover: coming to deictic center, going from deictic center, generic (also readable as stationary). See below for resulting fused forms.
**Such forms can create roughly “this … this.one” patterns. Optionally, the fused determiner.classifier may appear without a pronominal head -- any AP still trails the Determiner complex.
***A determiner is optional but frequent with proper names/titles/familial titles. More common for non-speech act participants but still frequent otherwise, especially in T-V marked speech acts.

Demonstrative Classifier forms: (perhaps determiner classifier is a better label?)

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I have not gotten to the quantifiers yet, but the pattern below will continue.

D. Classifiers.JPG (39.34 KiB) Viewed 12187 times

*These forms are isomorphic with extended cardinal “one” but are unstressed.

A thought that I am not too attached to is that demonstrative classified elements can disagree with pronominal heads in deixis for narrative/information structure reasons; for example: "this . . . that.one" or "that . . . this.one" could in the first case refer to a distal central to the dialogue while that latter could be for the reverse. Just a thought for getting more mileage out of otherwise very repetitive elements.

(Pro)nominal and Deictic Ablaut:

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Not too much to note for PRO and PRO.Deixis forms. Fused determiner.classifier fall into the PRO Clitic grade though with 3d person verbal endings rather than nominal endings.

The nominal grades a heavily affected by the deixis marking discussed above, especially in the locative, where fused proclitic deictics introduce a /ə/ root grade in addition to the /á/ grade locative prefix. The forms will appear roughly as "this (AP) this.á-root.Ø-(suffix.Ø)-ending.LOC.Ø" or "this-this.á-root.ə-(suffix.Ø)-ending.LOC.Ø".

Grades.jpg (57.12 KiB) Viewed 12187 times

I am planning to round out the nominal system with a body of productive derivational suffixes.

[2+3 clusivity]

Phonotactics Revised.

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Phonotactics.JPG (23.95 KiB) Viewed 12097 times

EDIT: need to add at least /ks/, /kt/, and ? /ktʰ/ clusters.

Initial Draft of Allophony.

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(1)(a) Backing of breathiness/aspiration:

/CʰC(C)V/ [CC(C)ʰV, CC(C)ʱV]
/CʱC(C)V/ [CC(C)ʰV, CC(C)ʱV]

(1)(b) Resolution of breathiness/aspiration:

/C*ɦV/ _(+breathy)ɦV [CʱV], _(-voice)ɦV [CʰV], _(+aspiration)ɦV [CʰV] (*non-fricatives)
/Sɦ/ _(+voice)ɦV [CʱV], _(-voice)ɦV [CʰV]
/ɦV/ [ɦV]
/C*HV/ _(+breathy)HV [CʱV], _(-voice)HV [CʰV], _(+aspiration)HV [CʰV] (*non-fricatives)
/SH/ _(+voice)HV [CʱV], _(-voice)HV [CʰV]
/HV/ [#hV], [VɦV], [Vɦ#]

(2)(a) Coronal Assimilation with Approximants:

Coronals take the POA of following /ɻ, ɪ̯/

(2)(b) Coronal Harmony:

Unless K_V, coronals stops and affricates assimilate to the POA of following coronal stops and affricates -- Fricatives might also be included. This rule is resolved after the rule immediately above. As an example, proximal number eight, /tsʰɪ.tsʰáɪ̯/, is [tsʰɪ.tsʰáɪ̯] but using a different grade /tsʰáɪ̯.tsʰɪ̯/ becomes [tʃʰáɪ̯.tʃʰɪ]. On the other hand, proximal number nine: /ktsɪk.tsá/ remains [ktʃɪk.tsá]; similarly, distal number nine /ktsʊk.tsá/ [ktsʊk.tsá].

In combination, (2)(a) & (b) can cause significant variation between proximal and distal forms and various grades.

(3)(a) Vowel allophones with pre-vocalic approximants:

In broad strokes:

/a/ ʊ̯_ [wɒ], ɪ̯_ [ya], ɻ_ [ɻɑ], ɦ_ [ɦɑ]
/a:/ ʊ̯_ [wɒ:], ɪ̯_ [ya:], ɻ_ [ɻɑ:], ɦ_ [ɦɑ:]
/ə/ ʊ̯_ [wo], ɪ̯_ [ye], ɻ_ [ɻə], ɦ_ [ɦə]
/ə:/ [wo:], ɪ̯_ [ye:], ɻ_ [ɻə:], ɦ_ [ɦə:]

Post-vocalic approximants simply form diphthongs.

[2+3 clusivity]

Well, why not.

Verb Ablaut.

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Fairly similar to the nominal ablaut system is the verb ablaut system. Here, the system is mostly zero grade versus long grade. I am vacillating on whether full grade: exists, is athematic/copular, or is an artificial (Pāṇini-esque) and/or later formation that will take over either the zero or long grade.

Verb Ablaut.JPG (40.41 KiB) Viewed 11932 times

Verb Terminations.

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As noted above, the full/athematic/copular grade is dubious.

Basic Verb Terminations.JPG (69.3 KiB) Viewed 11932 times

Copula.

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The copula optionally tracks movement with a shift in root. This will build into a analytic verb system so that in many forms, the speaker can track both the location and trajectory of S/A or P depending on alignment. I want other forms to also follow the copular conjugation -- perhaps imperatives tracking movement -- why not.

Existential Copula.JPG (77.73 KiB) Viewed 11932 times

General Thoughts.

Still need to do a TAM system. Almost any sound change will lead to more vowels, voicing/aspiration distinctions, and -- most likely -- tonogenesis.

[2+3 clusivity]

Edit notes:

Added relative, corelative, and interrogative pronouns above.

I think I also want to add defective enclitics in these series of a sort like Sanskrit <Ena>, which incidentally looks a lot like /*oi-n-/ or "one" in other PIE languages. Perhaps IIr. "one" /ai-k-/ is (also?) an O-grade of the demonstrative but with an indefinite /*oi-kʷ-/ rather than /*-n-/.

TAM Sketch.

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It's like a lot like my other projects -- again, I suppose we revert to the mean. The note system is Byzantine -- I know. G stands for nominal/adjective agreement; P stands for verb agreement.

I filled in a few example forms using the 1-2 singular coming form of ksə: “do.”

TAM.JPG (77.81 KiB) Viewed 11866 times

Moving Forward.

I think I now have enough to do derivations. I think the first step will be to do a few sound changes -- particularly with the vowels -- and a major re-synthesis of the nominal endings. More to come.

[2+3 clusivity]

Laying the foundation for a few derivation attempts:

Starting Point.

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Phoneme Inventory:
C: /p, t̪, ts, ʈʂ, tʃ, k/
Cʰ: /pʰ, t̪ʰ, tsʰ, ʈʂʰ, tʃʰ, kʰ/
Cʱ: /bʱ, d̪ʱ, dzʱ, ɖʐʱ, dʒʱ, gʱ/
F: /s, ʂ, ʃ, H/
F: /z, ʐ, ʒ/ [Again, not sure if these should also be breathy or simply modal voiced. The difference will show up later with tone and stress choices.]
L: /m~m̥, n~n̥, N~N̥/
L: /w~ʊ̯~ʊ, l~l̥, ɻ~ə˞, j~ɪ̯~ɪ, ɦ~ɦ̥/
V: /ə:, ə, a, a:/


Test words:
Seven: /(ks)ɪ.ksə́-(ɪ̯) / ~ /(ks)ʊ.ksə́-(ʊ̯)/
Nine: /(k)tsɪ̯k.tsá/ ~ /(k)tsʊ̯k.tsá /
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔɪ.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́:/ [ˈmə:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɪ.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈya]

Daughter Cluster One.

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Open Syllable Lengthening.

(1) V -> V: _$ (Note, diphthongs are not lengthened.)
(2) {ɪ(:), ʊ(:)} -> /I(:), u(:)/
Seven: /ksi:.ksə́ɪ̯/ ~ /ksu:.ksə́ʊ̯/
Nine: /tsik.tsá:/ ~ /tsuk.tsá:/ (initial k- dropped)
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /i:.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔi:.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́:/ [ˈmə:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /i:.ʊ̯á:/ [ʔi:.ˈʋɒ:], ACC: /ɪ̯á:/ [ˈya:], LOC: /i:.ɪ̯á/ [ʔi:.ˈya:]

Length Shifting.

(1) V:C -> VCC
Seven: /ksik.ksə́ɪ̯/ ~ /ksuk.ksə́ʊ̯/
Nine: /tsik.tsá:/ ~ /tsuk.tsá:/ (initial k- dropped)
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /im.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔim.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́:/ [ˈmə:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /iʊ̯.ʊ̯á:/ [ʔiʊ̯.ˈʋɒ:], ACC: /ɪ̯á:/ [ˈya:], LOC: /iɪ̯.ɪ̯á/ [ʔiɪ̯.ˈya:]

First Vowel Shift – unstressed reduction, stressed rising push chain..

(1)(a) /a/ -> /ə/; /ai̯/ -> /i/; /aʊ̯/ -> /u/
(1)(b) /ə/ -> /ə/; /əi̯/ -> /i/; /əʊ̯/ -> /u/
(1)(c) /a:/ -> /a/; /a:i̯/ -> /ai̯/; /a:ʊ̯/ -> /aʊ̯/
(1)(d) /ə:/ -> /ə/; /ə:i̯/ -> /əi̯/; /ə:ʊ̯/ -> /əʊ̯/
(1)(e) /iʊ̯/ -> /aʊ̯/
(1)(f) /ii̯/ -> /i:/
(1)(g) /uʊ̯/ -> /u:/
(1)(h) /ui̯/ -> /ai̯/
(2)(a) /á/ -> /ə́/; /ái̯/ -> /éi̯/; /áʊ̯/ -> /óʊ̯/
(2)(b) /ə́/ -> /ɨ́/; /ə́i̯/ -> /í:/; /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/
(2)(c) /á:/ -> /ə́ɨ̯/; /á:i̯/ -> /ɨ̯éi̯/; /á:ʊ̯/ -> /ɨ̯óʊ̯/
(2)(d) /ə:/ -> /ɨ́:/; /ə́:i̯/ -> /ɨ̯ái̯/; /ə́:ʊ̯/ -> /ɨ̯áʊ̯/
Leaving: [i, í:, ɨ́, ɨ́:, ə, ə́, a, u, ú:, éi̯, əi̯, ə́ɨ̯, əʊ̯, ai̯, aʊ̯, óʊ̯; ɨ̯éi̯, ɨ̯ái̯, ɨ̯áʊ̯, ɨ̯óʊ̯] (/ə́ɨ̯/ and the tripthongs must be unstable and collapse variously; I am analyzing glide + vowel as clusters rather than rising diphthongs)
Seven: /ksik.ksí:/ ~ /ksuk.ksú:/
Nine: /tsɪk.tsə́ɨ̯/ ~ /tsʊk.tsə́ɨ̯/ (initial k- dropped)
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /im.mú:/ [ʔim.ˈmu:], and ACC /mɨ́:/ [ˈmɨ:] (unstressed syllable of the NOM likely drops or is extended)
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /aʊ̯.ʊ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ʔaʊ̯.ˈʋə́ɨ̯], ACC: /ɪ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ˈyəɨ̯], LOC: /i:.ɪ̯á/ [ʔi:.ˈyə́ɨ̯] (probably need analogical leveling at this point)

Rhotacism.

(1) {l~l̥, Z, -n} -> /ɻ~ə˞/
Seven: /ksik.ksí:/ ~ /ksuk.ksú:/
Nine: /tsik.tsə́ɨ̯/ ~ /tsuk.tsə́ɨ̯/ (initial k- dropped)
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /im.mú:/ [ʔim.ˈmu:], and ACC /mɨ́:/ [ˈmɨ:] (unstressed syllable of the NOM likely drops or is extended)
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /aʊ̯.ʊ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ʔaʊ̯.ˈʋə́ɨ̯], ACC: /ɪ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ˈyəɨ̯], LOC: /i:.ɪ̯á/ [ʔi:.ˈyə́ɨ̯] (probably need analogical leveling at this point)

Coronal and Velar Assimilation.

(1)(a) {C, F}[-labial] -> {C, F}[+pre-velar affricate] {C, F}C _[+close central (semi-)vowel]
(1)(b) {C, F}C[-labial] -> {C, F}C[+retroflex] {C, F}C_[retroflex approximant]
(1)(c) {C, F}C[-labial] -> C[+palatal] {C, F}C_[palatal approximant, front vowel]
(1)(d) {C, F}C[+coronal] -> {C, F}C[+palatal] {C, F}C_[labiovelar approximant]
(2)(a) /k(ʰ)S/ -> /kʟ̝̊ ~ kʟ̝̊ʰ/
(2)(b) /kT/ -> /kʟ̝̊/
(2)(c) /kʰT/ -> /kʟ̝̊ʰ/
(2)(d) /k(ʰ)TS/ -> /kkʟ̝̊ʰ/
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ik.kʟ̝̊í:/ ~ /kʟ̝̊uk.kʟ̝̊ú:/
Nine: /tsi.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯/ [tsi.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯] ~ /tsu.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯/ [tsu.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯] (initial k- dropped), else ? Dial. or reborrowed /kkʟ̝̊ʰi.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯/ [tsi.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯] ~ / kkʟ̝̊ʰ.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯/ [kkʟ̝̊ʰ.kʟ̝̊ə́ɨ̯]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /im.mú:/ [ʔim.ˈmu:], and ACC /mɨ́:/ [ˈmɨ:] (unstressed syllable of the NOM likely drops or is extended)
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /aʊ̯.ʊ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ʔaʊ̯.ˈʋə́ɨ̯], ACC: /ɪ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ˈyəɨ̯], LOC: /i:.ɪ̯á/ [ʔi:.ˈyə́ɨ̯] (probably need analogical leveling at this point)

Second Vowel Shift

(1)(a) /a/ -> /ə/ -> /ɨ/; /ai̯/ -> /i/ -> /ɨ/; /aʊ̯/ -> /u/ -> /ʉ/
(1)(b) /ə/ -> /ə/ -> /ɨ/; /əi̯/ -> /i/ -> /ɨ/; /əʊ̯/ -> /u/ -> /ʉ/
(1)(c) /a:/ -> /a/ -> /ə/; /a:i̯/ -> /ai̯/ -> /i/; /a:ʊ̯/ -> /aʊ̯/ -> /u/
(1)(d) /ə:/ -> /ə/ -> /ɨ/; /ə:i̯/ -> /əi̯/ -> /i/; /ə:ʊ̯/ -> /əʊ̯/ -> /u/
(1)(e) /iʊ̯/ -> /aʊ̯/ -> /u/ [this change creates morphological issues, and, therefore, likely has many analogical exceptions, probably to /i/]
(1)(f) /ii̯/ -> /i:/ -> /i/
(1)(g) /uʊ̯/ -> /u:/ -> /u/
(1)(h) /ui̯/ -> /ai̯/ -> /i/ [same concern as above, probably to /u/]
(2)(a) /á/ -> /ə́/ -> /ɨ́/; /ái̯/ -> /éi̯/ -> /é:/; /áʊ̯/ -> /óʊ̯/ -> /ó:/
(2)(b) /ə́/ -> /ɨ́/ -> /ə́ɨ̯/; /ə́i̯/ -> /í:/ -> /ə́i̯/; /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/ -> /ə́ʊ̯/
(2)(c) /á:/ -> /ə́ɨ̯/ -> /ɨ́/; /á:i̯/ -> /ɨ̯éi̯/ -> /ʌ́i̯/; /á:ʊ̯/ -> /ɨ̯óʊ̯/ -> /ɛ́ʊ̯/
(2)(d) /ə:/ -> /ɨ́:/ -> /ə́ɨ̯/; /ə́:i̯/ -> /ɨ̯ái̯/ -> /ʌ́i̯/; /ə́:ʊ̯/ -> /ɨ̯áʊ̯/ -> /ɛ́ʊ̯/
Leaving, /i, é:, ɛ́ʊ̯, ɨ, ɨ́, ʉ, ə, ə́i̯, ə́ɨ̯, ə́ʊ̯, u, ó:, ʌ́i̯/
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ɨk.kʟ̝̊ə́i̯/ ~ /kʟ̝̊ʉk.kʟ̝̊ə́ʊ̯/
Nine: /tsɨ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́/ [tsɨ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́] ~ /tsʉ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́/ [tsʉ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́], else ? Dial. or reborrowed /kkʟ̝̊ʰɨ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́/ [tsɨ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́] ~ / kkʟ̝̊ʰʉ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́/ [kkʟ̝̊ʰʉ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɨm.mú:/ [ʔɨm.ˈmu:], and ACC /mə́ɨ̯/ [ˈmə́ɨ̯] (unstressed syllable of the NOM likely drops or is extended)
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /aʊ̯.ʊ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ʔaʊ̯.ˈʋə́ɨ̯], ACC: /ɪ̯ə́ɨ̯/ [ˈyəɨ̯], LOC: /ə́i̯:.ɪ̯á/ [ʔə́i̯:.ˈyə́ɨ̯] (probably need analogical leveling at this point)

Tonogenesis schtuff.

(1)(a) {C, F}V(V̯) -> CV33 <CV(V)> [“mother tone”]
(1)(b) {C, F}V́(V̯) -> C’V55 ~ CʔV55 <CV́ or CV́V́> [“father tone”]
(2)(a) CʰV(V̯)33 -> CV(V̯)33 <CʰV(V)> [“mother tone”]
(2)(b) CʰV́(V̯) -> CʰV(V̯̀)31 <CʰV(V̀)> [“brother tone”]
(3)(a) {N, Cʱ}V(V̯) -> CV̀V́14 <CV̀V̯́> [“twin tone”]
(3)(b) {N, Cʱ}V́(V̯) -> CʱVV́25(3) ~ CʱV(V̯́)25(3) <CʱV(V́)> [“sister tone”]
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ɨk.kʟ̝̊’ə́í̯/ ~ /kʟ̝̊ʉk.kʟ̝̊’ə́ʊ̯́/
Nine: /tsɨ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́/ [tsɨ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́] ~ /tsʉ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́/ [tsʉ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́], else ? Dial. or reborrowed /kkʟ̝̊ʰɨ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́/ [tsɨ.kʟ̝̊ɨ́] ~ / kkʟ̝̊ʰʉ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́/ [kkʟ̝̊ʰʉ.kʟ̝̊’ɨ́]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɨm.muú/ [ʔɨm.muú], and ACC /məɨ̯́/ [məɨ̯́] (unstressed syllable of the NOM likely drops or is extended)
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /aʊ̯.ʊ̯əɨ̯/ [ʔaʊ̯.ʋəɨ̯́], ACC: /ɪ̯əɨ̯́/ [yəɨ̯́], LOC: /əi̯:.ɪ̯á/ [ʔəi̯:.ˈyəɨ̯́] (probably need analogical leveling at this point)

Leaving a final phonology of about:

C: /p, t̪, ts, ʈʂ, tʃ, kʟ̝̊, k/ and, by tone, [p’, t̪’, ts’, ʈʂ’, tʃ’, kʟ̝̊’, k’]
Cʰ: /pʰ, t̪ʰ, tsʰ, ʈʂʰ, tʃʰ, kʟ̝̊, kʰ/
Cʱ: /bʱ, d̪ʱ, dzʱ, ɖʐʱ, dʒʱ, gʟ̝ʰ, gʱ/ and, by tone, [b, d̪, dz, ɖʐ, dʒ, gʟ̝, g]
F: /s, ʂ, ʃ, H, ʟ̝̊/ and, by tone, /s’, ʂ’, ʃ’, ʟ̝̊’/
L: /m~m̥, n~n̥, N~N̥/
L: /w~ʊ̯, ɻ~ə˞, j~ɪ̯, ɦ~ɦ̥/
/i, é:, ɛ́ʊ̯, ɨ, ɨ́, ʉ, ə, ə́i̯, ə́ɨ̯, ə́ʊ̯, u, ó:, ʌ́i̯/ (plus various tone modifications)

Notes: (1) need to consider what tonogenesis does to the morphology; (2) the next crack/merger of the stop series will simplify the various series and allophones out; likely need prefixing to fix a lot of the left periphery losses.


Daughter Cluster Two.

More: show

First Anticipatory Palatalization.

(1) {Coronal and velar stops, affricates, and fricatives} -> {C[+palatal]} _{i̯, i}
Seven: /ksɪ.ksə́ɪ̯/ [kʃɪ. ˈksəɪ̯] ~ /ksʊ.ksə́ʊ̯/ [ksʊ. ˈksəʊ̯]
Nine: /ktsɪ̯k.tsá/ [ktʃɪk. ˈtsa] ~ /ktsʊk.tsá/ [ktsʊk. ˈtsa]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔɪ.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́:/ [ˈmə:]

First Vowel Shift

(1)(a) /a/ -> /ə/; /ai̯/ -> /ei̯/; /aʊ̯/ -> /oʊ̯/
(1)(b) /ə/ -> /ʉ/; /əi̯/ -> /ʉ:/; /əʊ̯/ -> /ʉ:/
(1)(c) /a:/ -> /ə:/; /a:i̯/ -> /e:i̯/; /a:ʊ̯/ -> /o:ʊ̯/
(1)(d) /ə:/ -> /ʉ:/; /ə:i̯/ -> /i:/; /ə:ʊ̯/ -> /u:/
(1)(e) /ɪ/ -> /ɪ/
(1)(f) /ʊ/ -> /ʊ/
(1)(g) /m̥/ -> /əm/
(1)(h) /n̥/ -> /ən/
(1)(i) /l̥/ -> /əl/
(2)(a) /á/ -> /á/; /ái̯/ -> /éi̯/; /áʊ̯/ -> /óʊ̯/
(2)(b) /ə́/ -> /ʉ́/; /ə́i̯/ -> /í:/; /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/
(2)(c) /á:/ -> /á:/; /á:i̯/ -> /é:i̯/; /á:ʊ̯/ -> /ó:ʊ̯/
(2)(d) /ə:/ -> /ʉ́:/; /ə́:i̯/ -> /í:/; /ə́:ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/
Leaving: [ə, ʉ~ʉ́; á:, ə:, ʉ:~ ʉ́:, i:~ í:, u:~ ú:, ei̯~éi̯, oʊ̯~óʊ̯, é:i̯, ó:ʊ̯]
Or, by height, /á:, ə, ə:, i:~ í:, ʉ, ʉ:~ ʉ́:, u:~ ú:; ei̯~éi̯, oʊ̯~óʊ̯; é:i̯, ó:ʊ̯/
Seven: /kʃɪ.ksí:/ [kʃɪ. ˈksi:] ~ /ksʊ.ksú:/ [ksʊ. ˈksu:]
Nine: /ktʃɪk.tsá/ [ktʃɪk. ˈtsa] ~ /ktsʊ̯k.tsá/ [ktsʊk. ˈtsa]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mú:/ [ʔɪ.ˈmu:], and ACC /mʉ́:/ [ˈmʉ́:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɪ.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈya]


Glottal and Voicing Resolution.

(1) /ɦ̥/ -> /a/
(2)(a) /H, S/ -> /Cʰ/ #_C[tenuis], V_C[tenuis], or C[tenuis]_
(2)(b) /H, S/ -> {CCʰ, CCʱ} #_{Cʰ, Cʱ}, V_{Cʰ, Cʱ}, or {Cʰ, Cʱ}_
(2)(c) /H, S/ -> /Lʱ/ #_L[voiced], V_L[voiced], or L[voiced]_
(2)(b) else /H/ -> /Ø/; {s, ʂ, ʃ} -> {s, ʂ, ʃ}
(3)(a)/ z, ʐ, ʒ, ɦ/ -> /Cʱ/ #_C[tenuis], V_C[tenuis], or C[tenuis]_
(3)(b) / z, ʐ, ʒ, ɦ/ -> {CCʱ} #_{Cʰ, Cʱ}, V_{Cʰ, Cʱ}, or {Cʰ, Cʱ}_
(3)(c) / z, ʐ, ʒ, ɦ/ -> /Lʱ/ #_L[voiced], V_L[voiced], or L[voiced]_
(4) /dzʱ, ɖʐʱ, dʒʱ/ --> /z, ʐ, ʒ/
Seven: /kʃɪ.ksí:/ [kʃɪ. ˈksi:] ~ /ksʊ.ksú:/ [ksʊ. ˈksu:]
Nine: /ktsɪk.tsá/ [ktʃɪk.tsa] ~ /ktsʊ̯k.tsá/ [ktsʊk. ˈtsa]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mú:/ [ʔɪ.ˈmu:], and ACC /mʉ́:/ [ˈmʉ́:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɪ.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈya]

Click Genesis or Velar Resolution [not sure which of these I like the most for the moment, I want to explore A and B the most. K is kinda bland.]

(1) /k(ʰ)S/ -> A /ǀʰ/; B /ʈʂʰ, ʈʈʰ/; C /kʰ/
(2)(a) /kT/ -> A /ǀ/; B /ʈʈ/; C /k-, -kk-, -k/
(2)(b) /kʰT/ -> A /ǀʰ/; B /ʈʈʰ/; C /kʰ-, -kkʰ-, -kʰ/
(3) /k(ʰ)TS/ -> A /ǀ̃ʰ/; B /ʈʈʂʰ/; C /kʰ-, -kkʰ-, -kʰ/
A Seven: /ǀʰɪ.ǀʰí:/ [ǀʰɪ. ˈǀʰi:] ~ /ǀʰʊ. ˈǀʰú:/ [ǀʰʊ.ˈǀʰu:]; B Seven: /ʈʂʰɪ.ʈʂʰí:/ [ʈʂʰɪ. ˈʈʂʰi:] ~ /ʈʂʰʊ.ʈʂʰú:/ [ʈʂʰʊ.ˈʈʂʰu:]; C Seven/ kʰɪ.kkʰí:/ [kʰɪ. ˈkkʰi:] ~ / kʰʊ.kkʰú:/ [kʰʊ.ˈkkʰu:]
A Nine: /ǀ̃ʰɪ.ǀ̃ʰá/ [ǀ̃ʰɪ.ˈǀ̃ʰa] ~ /ǀʰʊ̯.ǀ̃ʰá/ [ǀʰʊ.ˈǀ̃ʰa]; B Nine: /ʈʈʂʰɪ.ʈʈʂʰá/ [ʈʈʂʰ:ɪ.ˈʈʈʂʰ:a] ~ /ʈʈʂʰʊ̯.ʈʈʂʰá/ [ʈʈʂʰ:ʊ.ˈʈʈʂʰ:a]; C Nine: / kʰɪ.kkʰá/ [kʰɪ.ˈkkʰa] ~ /kʰʊ̯.kkʰá/ [kʰʊ.ˈkkʰa]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mú:/ [ʔɪ.ˈmu:], and ACC /mʉ́:/ [ˈmʉ́:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɪ.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈya]

Second Anticipatory Palatalization

(1) {Coronal and velar affricates, clicks, fricatives, and stops} -> {C[+palatal]} _{i̯, i(:), e(:)}
A Seven: /ǂʰɪ.ǂʰí:/ [ǂʰɪ.ˈǂʰi:] ~ /ǀʰʊ.ǀʰú:/ [ǀʰʊ.ˈǀʰu:]; B Seven: /tʃʰɪ.tʃʰí:/ [tʃʰɪ.ˈtʃʰi:] ~ /ʈʂʰʊ.ʈʂʰú:/ [ʈʂʰʊ.ˈʈʂʰu:]; C Seven/tʃʰɪ.ktʃʰí:/ [tʃʰɪ.ˈktʃʰi:] ~ / kʰʊ.kkʰú:/ [kʰʊ.ˈkkʰu:]
A Nine: /ǂ̃ʰɪ.ǂ̃ʰá/ [ǂʰɪ.ˈǂ̃ʰa] ~ /ǀ̃ʰʊ̯. ǀ̃ʰá/ [ǀʰʊ.ˈǀ̃ʰa]; B Nine: /ttʃʰɪ.ʈʈʂʰá/ [ttʃʰɪ.ˈʈʈʂʰ:a] ~ /ʈʈʂʰʊ̯.ʈʈʂʰá/ [ʈʈʂʰʊ.ˈʈʈʂʰ:a]; C Nine: / tʃʰɪ.kkʰá/ [tʃʰɪ.ˈkkʰa] ~ /kʰʊ̯.kkʰá/ [kʰʊ.ˈkkʰ]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mú:/ [ʔɪ.ˈmu:], and ACC /mʉ́:/ [ˈmʉ́:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɪ.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈya]

Second Vowel Shift (and unstressed diphthong collapse).

(1)(a) /a/ -> /ə/ -> /ɨ/; /ai̯/ -> /ei̯/-> /i/; /aʊ̯/ -> /oʊ̯/ -> /u/
(1)(b) /ə/ -> /ʉ/ -> /u/; /əi̯/ -> /ʉ:/ -> /ui̯/ -> /u/; /əʊ̯/ -> /ʉ:/ -> /ui̯/ -> /u/
(1)(c) /a:/ -> /ə:/ -> /ɨ/; /a:i̯/ -> /e:i̯/ -> /i/; /a:ʊ̯/ -> /o:ʊ̯/ -> /u/
(1)(d) /ə:/ -> /ʉ:/ -> /u/; /ə:i̯/ -> /ʉ:i̯/ -> /ui̯/-> /u/; /ə:ʊ̯/ -> /ʉ:ʊ̯/ -> /ui̯/ -> /u/
(1)(e) /ɦ̥/ -> /a/ -> /ə/
(1)(f) /ɪ/ -> /ɪ/ -> /ɨi̯/ (maybe quickly followed by -> /əi̯/)
(1)(g) /ʊ/ -> /ʊ/ -> /ɨʊ̯/ (maybe quickly followed by -> /əʊ̯/)
(1)(h) /m̥/ -> /əm/ -> /ɨm/
(1)(i) /n̥/ -> /ən/ -> /ɨn/
(1)(j) /l̥/ -> /əl/ -> /ɨl/
[Long and short unstressed grades merge and a and ə grades partially overlap!]
(2)(a) /á/ -> /á/ -> /á:/; /ái̯/ -> /éi̯/ -> /í:/; /áʊ̯/ -> /óʊ̯/ -> /ú:/
(2)(b) /ə́/ -> /ʉ́/ -> /ú:/; /ə́i̯/ -> /í:/ -> /ái̯/; /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/ -> /áʊ̯/
(2)(c) /á:/ -> /á:/ -> /á:/; /á:i̯/ -> /é:i̯/ -> /í:/; /á:ʊ̯/ -> /ó:ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/
(2)(d) /ə:/ -> /ʉ́:/ -> /ú:/; /ə́:i̯/ -> /í:/ -> /ái̯/; /ə́:ʊ̯/ -> /ú:/ -> /áʊ̯/
[Long and short stressed grades merge and a and ə grades partially overlap!]
Leaving, by fronting: [i ;ɨ, ə; u; í:; á:; ú:; ái̯, áʊ̯;]
A Seven: /ǂʰɨi̯.ǂʰái̯/ [ǂʰɨi̯.ˈǂʰai̯] ~ /ǀʰɨʊ̯.ǀʰáʊ̯/ [ǀʰɨʊ̯.ˈǀʰaʊ̯]; B Seven: /tʃʰɨi̯.tʃʰái̯/ [tʃʰɨi̯.ˈtʃʰai̯] ~ /ʈʂʰɨʊ̯.ʈʂʰáʊ̯/ [ʈʂʰɨʊ̯.ˈʈʂʰaʊ̯]; C Seven/tʃʰɨi̯.ktʃʰái̯/ [tʃʰɨi̯.ˈktʃʰai̯] ~ / kʰɨʊ̯.kkʰáʊ̯/ [kʰɨʊ̯.ˈkkʰaʊ̯]
A Nine: /ǂ̃ʰɨi̯.ǂ̃ʰá/ [ǂʰɨi̯.ǂ̃ʰa] ~ /ǀ̃ʰɨʊ̯.ǀ̃ʰá/ [ǀʰɨʊ̯.ˈǀ̃ʰa]; B Nine: /ttʃʰɨi̯.ʈʈʂʰá/ [ttʃʰɨi̯.ˈʈʈʂʰ:a] ~ /ʈʈʂʰɨʊ̯.ʈʈʂʰá/ [ʈʈʂʰɨʊ̯.ˈʈʈʂʰa]; C Nine: / tʃʰɨi̯.kkʰá/ [tʃʰɨi̯.ˈkkʰa] ~ /kʰɨʊ̯.kkʰá/ [kʰɨʊ̯.ˈkkʰa]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɨi̯.máʊ̯/ [ʔɪ.ˈmaʊ̯], and ACC /mú:/ [ˈmu:]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɨi̯.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɨi̯.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɨi̯.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɨi̯.ˈya]

The resulting phoneme inventories pan out something like.

C: /p, t̪, ts, ʈʂ, tʃ, k/ + A /ǀ, ǂ/ and B /ʈ/
Cʰ: /pʰ, t̪ʰ, tsʰ, ʈʂʰ, tʃʰ, kʰ/ + A /ǀʰ, ǂʰ/ and B /ʈʰ/
Cʱ: /bʱ, d̪ʱ, gʱ/
F: /s, ʂ, ʃ, H/
F: /z, ʐ, ʒ/ [still not sure if these should also be breathy or simply modal voiced]
L: /m, n, N/ + B /ǀ̃, ǂ̃/
L: /w~ʊ̯, l, ɻ˞, j~ɪ̯, ɦ/
V: /ə:, ə, a, a:/ -> /i ;ɨ, ə; u; í:; á:; ú:; ái̯, áʊ̯;, ɨi̯, ɨʊ̯/ and with /N/ various nasalized variants. /N/ probably forces centralization/neutralization especially of the unstressed vowels.

Notes: (1) Phonotactics remain the same except in B, which allows geminate (fortis?) onsets. (2) The Ablaut system considered together with glide coloration massively changes and simplifies -- shortened and unstressed a grade /ɨ, i, u/ v. lengthened and stressed a grade /á:, í:, ú:/; shortened and unstressed ə grade /u, u, u/ v. lengthened and stressed ə grade /ú:, ái̯:, áʊ̯/. (3) Need to run the pronoun system through these sound changes, analogical leveling will probably be needed to keep things straight – especially with /k/ and /T/ in palatalizing environments.


Third Daughter Cluster.

More: show

Length Shift –
(1)(a) V:C$ -> VC:$
(1)(b) V:# -> Vh#
(1)(c) V:.C -> VC.Cʰ
Seven: /ksɪ.ksə́ɪ̯/ [ksɪ.ksə́ɪ̯] ~ /ksʊ.ksə́ʊ̯/ [ksʊ.ksə́ʊ̯]
Nine: /tsɪk.tsá/ [tsɪk.tsá] ~ /tsʊk.tsá/ [tsʊk.tsá] (K + TS cluster simplified)
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔɪ.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́h/ [ˈməh]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ɪ.ʊ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /ɪ.ɪ̯á/ [ʔɪ.ˈya]

First Vowel Shift:
(1)(a) /a/ -> /ə/; /ai̯/ -> /e/; /aʊ̯/ -> /o/
(1)(b) /ə/ -> /ə/; /əi̯/ -> /i/; /əʊ̯/ -> /u/
(2)(a) /i/ -> /e/; /ii̯/ -> /i/; /iʊ̯/ -> /ʉ/
(2)(b) /u/ -> /o/; /ui̯/ -> /ʉ/; /uʊ̯/ -> /u/
(3)(a) /á/ -> /á/; /ái̯/ -> /ái̯/; /áʊ̯/ -> /áʊ̯/
(3)(b) /ə́/ -> /ə́/; /ə́i̯/ -> /ə́i̯/; /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ə́ʊ̯/
Seven: /kse.ksə́ɪ̯/ [kse.ksə́ɪ̯] ~ /kso.ksə́ʊ̯/ [kso.ksə́ʊ̯]
Nine: /tsek.tsá/ [tsek.tsá] ~ /tsok.tsá/ [tsok.tsá]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /e.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔe.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́h/ [ˈməh]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /e.ʊ̯á/ [ʔe.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /e.ɪ̯á/ [ʔe.ˈya]

K + C cluster Simplification:
(1)(a) /ks/ -> /kʟ̝̊ʰ/
(1)(b) /kt/ -> /kʟ̝̊/
(1)(c) /ktʰ/ -> /kʟ̝̊ʰ/
(1)(d) /kts/ -> /kkʟ̝̊ʰ/
(1)(e) /ktsʰ/ -> /kkʟ̝̊ʰ/
(1)(f) /kʰC/ -> /kʟ̝̊ʰ/
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ʰe.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ɪ̯/ [kʟ̝̊ʰe.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ɪ̯] ~ /kʟ̝̊ʰo.ksə́ʊ̯/ [kʟ̝̊ʰo.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ʊ̯]
Nine: /tsek.tsá/ [tsek.kʟ̝̊ʰá] ~ /tsok.tsá/ [tsok.kʟ̝̊ʰá]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /e.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔe.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́h/ [ˈməh]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /e.ʊ̯á/ [ʔe.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /e.ɪ̯á/ [ʔe.ˈya]

First Palatalization:
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ʰe.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ɪ̯/ [tʃe.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ɪ̯] ~ /kʟ̝̊ʰo.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ʊ̯/ [kʟ̝̊ʰo.kʟ̝̊ʰə́ʊ̯]
Nine: /tsek.kʟ̝̊á/ [tʃek.kʟ̝̊ʰá] ~ /tsok.kʟ̝̊á/ [tsok.kʟ̝̊ʰá]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /e.mə́ʊ̯/ [ʔe.ˈməʊ̯], and ACC /mə́h/ [ˈməh]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /e.ʊ̯á/ [ʔe.ˈʋɒ], ACC: /ɪ̯á/ [ˈya], LOC: /e.ɪ̯á/ [ʔe.ˈya]

Second Vowel Shift:
(1)(a) /a/ -> /ə/ -> /ə/; /ai̯/ -> /e/ -> /ə/; /aʊ̯/ -> /o/ -> /ə/
(1)(b) /ə/ -> /ə/ -> /ə/; /əi̯/ -> /i/ -> /ɨ/; /əʊ̯/ -> /u/ -> /ʉ/
(2)(a) /i/ -> /e/ -> /ə/; /ii̯/ -> /i/ -> /ɨ/; /iʊ̯/ -> /ʉ/ -> /ʉ/
(2)(b) /u/ -> /o/ -> /ə/; /ui̯/ -> /ʉ/ -> /ʉ/; /uʊ̯/ -> /u/ -> /ʉ/
(3)(a) /á/ -> /á/ -> /á/; /ái̯/ -> /ái̯/ -> /ə́/; /áʊ̯/ -> /áʊ̯/ -> /ə́/
(3)(b) /ə́/ -> /ə́/ -> /ə́/; /ə́i̯/ -> /ə́i̯/ -> /ɨ́/; /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ə́ʊ̯/ -> /ʉ́/
Seven: /tʃə.kʟ̝̊ʰɨ̯̀/ [tʃə.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰɨ] ~ /kʟ̝̊ʰə.kʟ̝̊ʰʉ́/ [kʟ̝̊ʰə.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰʉ]
Nine: /tʃək.kʟ̝̊á/ [tʃək.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰa] ~ /tsək.kʟ̝̊á/ [tsək.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰa]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ə.mʉ́/ [ʔə.ˈmʉ], and ACC /mə́h/ [ˈməh]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /ə.vá/ [ʔə.ˈʋa], ACC: /yá/ [ˈya], LOC: /ə.yá/ [ʔe.ˈya]

Default onset changes from [ʔ] to [ɦ]

Loss of initial unstressed open syllables (with huge analogical reinforcement and prefixing of directional and person elements): Loss of voiceless causes remaining stressed syllable to be high-modal (44 - ˦), loss of breathy or vowel only syllable causes remaining syllable to be breathy low-rising tone (15 - ˩˥), loss of aspirated cause remaining syllable to be top dropping (53 - ˥˧)
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ʰɨ̯̀/ [ˈkʟ̝̊ʰɨ˥˧] ~ /kʟ̝̊ʰʉ̀/ [ˈkʟ̝̊ʰʉ˥˧]
Nine: /tʃək.kʟ̝̊á/ [tʃək˦.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰa˦] ~ /tsək.kʟ̝̊á/ [tsək˦.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰa˦]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /mʉ́/ [ˈmʉ˦], and ACC /mə́h/ [ˈməh˦]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /vʱǎ/ [ˈʋʱa˩˥], ACC: /yá/ [ˈya˦], LOC: /yʱǎ/ [ˈyʱa˩˥]

Loss of coda consonants:
(1)(a) Modal and top dropping + lost aspirated or voiceless -> Long top dropping
(1)(b) Breathy low-rising + lost breathy -> long breathy Low rising
(1)(c) Breathy Low-rising + lost voiceless -> modal
(1)(d) Breathy low-rising + lost aspirated -> Breathy low (11 - ˩)
Seven: /kʟ̝̊ʰɨ̀/ [ˈkʟ̝̊ʰɨ˥˧] ~ /kʟ̝̊ʰʉ̀/ [ˈkʟ̝̊ʰʉ˥˧]
Nine: /tʃə̀.kʟ̝̊á/ [tʃə:˥˧.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰa˦] ~ /tsə̀.kʟ̝̊á/ [tsə:˥˧.ˈkʟ̝̊ʰa˦]
1-2 Sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /mʉ́/ [ˈmʉ˦], and ACC /mə̀:/ [ˈmə:˥˧]
3-3 sg. Non-enclitic NOM: /vʱǎ/ [ˈʋʱa˩˥], ACC: /yá/ [ˈya˦], LOC: /yʱǎ/ [ˈyʱa˩˥]

[2+3 clusivity]

Some work in a current draft.


I have been thinking about distance grades and their interaction with coronal fricative and affricate harmony. Harmony works left to right and back right to left. Stops including nasals are blockers everything else is transparent. Fricatives in pre-nasal onsets are also considered blocked.


2-2 plural,

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present active voice: /(i-) –tʰís/ -> /(i-) –tʃʰíʂ/ -> /(i-) –tʃʰíʃ/

present active voice exist.copula: /(i-)k.s-tʰís/ -> /ik.ʃʈʃʰíʂ/ -> /itʃ.ʈʃʰíʃ/

present experiencer "voice": /(i-) –tʰɨ́.sin/ -> /(i-) –kʟ̝̊ʰá:.ʃin/

present experiencer "voice" exist.copula: /(i-)k.s-tʰɨ́.sin/ -> /ik.ʂkʟ̝̊ʰá.ʃin/ -> IRRG thematic with active /itʃ.kʟ̝̊ʰá.ʃin/ c.f. 3d.Prox /itʃ.tʃʰá:.ʃi/ (although I guess this could be an early application of a variation on the derivational harmony rule below)

Direct Alloform1: /tʰi.s-á/ -> /tʃʰi.ʂ-ə́:/ -> /tʃʰi.ʃ-ə́:/

Direct Alloform2: /tʰis-.dzás/ -> /tʃʰi.ʂʈʂʰə́:.ʃ-i/ -> /tʃʰi.ʃtʃʰə́:.ʃ-i/

Oblique: /tʰis.dzáns/ -> /tʃʰi:.ʂʈʂʰə́n.ʃ-i/ -> /tʃʰi:.ʃtʃʰə́n.ʃ-i/ but c.f. 3d.prox with blocking /yʱa:.stsʰə́n.ʃ-i/

Locative: /tʰis.dzɨ.s-/ -> /tʃʰi.ʂkʟ̝̊ʰá:.s-/ -> /tʃʰi.ʃkʟ̝̊ʰá:.ʃ-/

Genitive/POSS: /tʰis.dzá.snɨs/ -> /tʃʰi.ʂʈʂʰə́:.snʱas/ -> /tʃʰi.ʃtʃʰə́:.snʱas/ spreading blocked, c.f. 3d.prox /?yʱa.ʂʈʂʰə́:.snʱas/ or perhaps /?yʱa.ʃtʃʰə́:.snʱas/

OBL-LOC-GEN Enclitic: /tʰis/ -> /tʃʰiʂ/ -> /tʃʰiʃ/

2-3 plural.

More: show

present active voice: /(u-) –tʰús/ -> /(u)- tʰúʂ/

present active voice exist.copula: /(u-)k.s-tʰús/ -> /uk.ʂʈʰúʂ/ -> /uʈʂ.ʈʰúʂ/

present experiencer "voice": /(u-) –tʰɨ́v.si/ -> /(u-) –kʟ̝̊ʰav.ʃi/ -> /(u-) –kʟ̝̊ʰav.ʂu/ thematic development

present experiencer "voice" exist.copula: /(u-)k.s-tʰɨ́v.si/ -> /uk.ʂkʟ̝̊ʰav.ʃi/ -> /uʈʂ.kʟ̝̊ʰav.ʂu/ thematic development

Direct Alloform1: /tʰu.s-á/ -> /tʰu.ʂə́:/

Direct Alloform2: /tʰus-.dzás/ -> /tʰu.ʂʈʂʰə́:/

Oblique: /tʰus.dzáns/ -> /tʰu:.ʂʈʂʰə́n.ʃ-i/ spreading blocked c.f. also 3d.dist /vʱa:.stsʰə́n.ʃ-i/ with blocking.

Locative: /tʰus.dzɨ́.s-/ - > /tʰu.ʂkʟ̝̊ʰá:.s-/ -> /tʰu.ʂkʟ̝̊ʰá:.ʂ-/

Genitive/POSS: /tʰus.dzá.snɨs/ -> /tʰu.ʂʈʂʰə́:.snʱas/ spreading blocked

OBL-LOC-GEN Enclitic: /tʰus/ -> /tʰuʂ/

Pre-verbs ~ verb prefixes (with more irregular and analogical developments)

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at: /a.t-ɨ/ -> /ə.kʟ̝̊a:/ -> /kʟ̝̊a:/
inside: /ta.r-ɨ/ -> /tə.ra:/ -> IRRG /ʈʂa:/
in: /rɨ/ -> /ra:/

to: /a.t-i-.yɨ/ -> /ə.dʒi:.ya:/ -> /dʒya:/ IRRG all along
to the inside: /ta.r-i-.yɨ/ -> /tər.i:.ya:/ -> /ʈʂə-.ya:/ IRRG all along
into: /ra-.y-ɨ/ -> /rə:.ya:/

along: /at-.dz-ɨ/ -> /ə:d.dza:/ -> /dza:/ IRRG all along, the expected form would be /dʱa:/
together/with: /tar-.dz-ɨ/ -> /tə.rʱa:/ -> IRRG /ʈʂʰa:/
within/through: /ra-.dz-ɨ/ -> /rə:.ha:/ -> IRRG /rʱa:/

forth from: /at-.v-ɨ/ -> /əd.va:/ -> /dva:/
forth from inside: /tar-.v-ɨ/ -> /tər.va:/ -> /ʈʂva:/
forth from under/within: /ra-.v-ɨ/ -> /rə:.va:/ -> /rə.va:/

from: /at-p.r-ɨ/ -> /əd.bə.ra:/ -> /ɖʐra:/ IRRG all along
from inside: /tar-p.r-ɨ/ -> /tər.bə.ra:/ -> /ʈʂə.ra:/ IRRG all along
from under/within: /ra-p.r-ɨ/ -> /rəb.ra:/ -> IRRG /rə.ra:/

The theme vowels of these forms can fuse with /y~i/ and /v~u/ with various coronal assimilations, which will eliminate some distinctions.

Here, I think there must be a further rule with coronal harmony, perhaps it probes first from the root left to right and then back onto the prefix on the right to left probe, so:

/ʈʂa:/ + /uʈʂ.ʈʰúʂ/ -> /ʈʂa.vuʈʂ.ʈʰúʂ/ "you all there are inside (of) ____"

But, /ʈʂa:/ + /itʃ.ʈʃʰíʃ/ -> /*ʈʂa.yiʈʂ.ʈʂʰíʂ/ but /tʃa.yitʃ.tʃʰíʃ/ "you all here are inside (of) ____"

Revised Rule:
(1) Pre-derivational harmony: Coronal Fricatives and Affricates assimilate to the coronal POA of Fricatives and Affricates to their left unless there is an intervening stop, then
(2) Derivational harmony: Coronal Fricatives and Affricates assimilate to the coronal POA of Fricatives and Affricates to their right unless there is an intervening stop.

Sandhi rules need to be worked out in greater detail.

[Xephyr]

You probably know this, and it needn't mean anything for your conlang, but real-world possessive classifiers (certainly in Austronesian, and iirc elsewhere also) don't tend to classify things by their kind, but by the nature of the relation.

Not according to Aikhenvald (Classifiers: A Typology of Noun Categorization Devices). The kind of possessive classifier you're talking about, relational classifiers, are only found in "the Oceanic subgroup of Austronesian, and in a few South American Indian languages," whereas possessed classifiers (which agree in class with the possessed noun) are found in dozens of language families all over the world, and seem to be the most common. The book also mentions that a relational classifier system can coexist with a possessed classifier system in the same language.

[Salmoneus]

You probably know this, and it needn't mean anything for your conlang, but real-world possessive classifiers (certainly in Austronesian, and iirc elsewhere also) don't tend to classify things by their kind, but by the nature of the relation.

Not according to Aikhenvald (Classifiers: A Typology of Noun Categorization Devices). The kind of possessive classifier you're talking about, relational classifiers, are only found in "the Oceanic subgroup of Austronesian, and in a few South American Indian languages," whereas possessed classifiers (which agree in class with the possessed noun) are found in dozens of language families all over the world, and seem to be the most common. The book also mentions that a relational classifier system can coexist with a possessed classifier system in the same language.

Yes, 2+3 pointed this out above... but thanks for the reminder!

I'm not show what they/Aikhenvald mean by "do not occur in multiple classifier system languages", though. Also, Aikhenvald is just wrong if she says that these 'relational' systems do not have large inventories - although this is true in most places and for most languages, there are micronesian languages with several dozen classifiers. Indeed, since classifiers are often morphologically indistinguishable from nouns/verbs, and tend to be zero-derived from nouns/verbs*, it may be that in some languages they actually form an open class. Harrison (1976), for example, lists 14 of the most common classifiers in Mokilese: these include classifiers as specific as "pillow", "earring" and "ear decoration other than an earring", which may suggest that 14 is just the tip of the iceberg. These classifiers have been considered nouns, or verbs, or both, or neither.
(She's also wrong if she thinks they're only found in Oceanic. They're also widespread in South Halmahera-West New Guinea, (which may or may not be a sister branch to Oceanic), and less reliably in several of the Central Malayo-Polynesian branches, as well as in Chamorro (geographically but not genetically Micronesian).)

The general objection, however, is correct, and is supported by Lichtenberk. I plead ignorance. I have in the past looked at some south american languages for research for Rawàng Ata, however, and so I think my 'iirc' there was drawn from having seen some of those south american languages, and the austronesian languages, and having falsely extrapolated from those two.



*sometimes amusingly. The Iaai classifier for 'plant' is the noun meaning specifically 'coconut tree'. In many languages the classifier for 'food' is the verb meaning 'to suffer'.

[Xephyr]

Yes, 2+3 pointed this out above... but thanks for the reminder!

Christ. I specifically looked to see if anyone had already noted this, and I missed it anyway.

[Salmoneus]

Yeah, we've all done that...

(but seriously, thanks for the reminder to look at that more)

[2+3 clusivity]

(Going) the distance – but, specifically, which distance .
WIP . . . failing a pragmatic reason, it seems the origo for distance agreement should be A or S.

More: show

(1)
/*mə́n=dʒya: i-si~.svá-mɨn/
[mə́ɲ.dʒi.ya: i.ʃi.ʃvʱá.mɨn]
I.Obl.Min=to here-REDUP~see-1st.Min.Exp
here, I see them. (Perhaps to be read: here, I look for them)

A more fundamental question is, failing pragmatics, what assigns the target of verbal deixis? Is it the verb stem or a feature of the verb like tense? Can only certain verbs assign deixis?

Are you experienceding?
WIP . . . need to determine if experiencer concord agrees with A/S or with O/null.
Using (1), above, I feel like experiencer concord must be A/S at least in the intentional/non-accidental construction. Perhaps, compare that to:

More: show

(2) Showing an accidental/unintentional experiencer subject.
/*má:.=i si~.svá-dzɨn/
[má.yi ʃi.ʃvʱá.dʒɨn]
I.Loc.Min=here REDUP~see-Null (the final agreement suffix is equivalent to 3d.Min.Exp)
Here – by accident/chance/etc. – I see them. (Version note: in the past I used locative PPs rather than a locative case ending – the locative case ending forces deictic prefixes off the verb and onto the first available locative going right to left as an enclitic with appropriate Sandhi effects)

Causative mirroring of DSM
As discussed far above, Subject (A or S) marking varies depending on experiencer status and whether the Subject effects the action intentionally versus accidentally. Using a double object, double subject, dative shift and causative alternations, the language can largely do without morphological voice. That being said, several lexical to semi-productive causative and anti-causative formations will be available.

Direct Causatives: Mirroring DSM, match intentional v. unintentional/accidental/permitted causativization, as one dimension, against comitative v. non-comitative causation, as a second dimension.
These formations will be derived/formed through stem transformations and root suffixing. Note that causativization will affect (decrement) the logical number used in verbal number as discussed below. E.g. –

More: show

[-Spʰat-] – non-causative sit

[-Spʰa:́t-] -- intentionally sit (object) with / set down with

[-Spʰá:d.-dz-] – intentionally sit (object) next to A / set down next to A

[-pí.ʂpʰit-] here, . . . accidentally sit (object) / drop

[-pí-ʂpʰid.-dz-] here, . . . accidentally sit (object) next to A / drop next to A

Indirect Causatives: only occur in comitative and non-comitative versions:

More: show

[-í-.spʰi.]

[-í-spʰi-dz-]

Anti-causatives

More: show

WIP.
[-V́-:bʱ-]

Minimal-Augmented verbal number.

Scope. Verbal number affects at least the following verb classes: intransitive verbs of motion and positon, transitives of caused motion; psych verbs, verbs of perception, etc.; copular expressions aligned with these constructions: obligational/modal compound verbs, quasi-possession and inalienable possession predicates.

Alignment and Number System. As I understand it, verbal number in natlangs is determined by the number of the S or O; so, it is an interesting form of covert-ergative marking. Reviewing Corbett, it also appears that verbal number is organized on a “singular v. plural” or “paucal v. greater paucal” depending on the verb within the same languages. I take this to mean that verbal number can – and perhaps often does – operate on a minimal v. augmented number system.

Here, since Differential Subject Marking which often blocks typical agreement, keeping track of the number of the Subject (S and A) becomes useful in a variety of constructions to which this will apply; therefore, verbal number will be determined by testing S or both A and O. Not originally intended, this system allows a massive amount of PRO-dropping due to parallel A/S agreement suffixes. Availability of both A and S for number testing, also makes sense to me diachronically as DSM constructions could be descended or analogized from scrambling formations fronting O. Samples with an early TAM version--

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(1) Minimal subject, minimal object = Minimal Verb
/*(mi.dzə́:) (yə́:) i.-spát.-mi/ (here all pronouns can be dropped without ambiguity)
[(mi.dzə́:) (yə́:) i.ʂpʰád.mi]
I.Dir this.Dir here-throw.Min-1st.Min
Here, I throw it. (Note, “here” refers to the setting rather than the goal of the action).

(2) Minimal subject, augmented object = Augmented Verb (Again, all pronouns can be dropped)
/*(mi.dzə́:) (yʱə.sə́:) i.-pi.~sp<H>t.-mi /
[(mi.dzə́:) (yʱə.sə́:) i.pi.ʂpʰíd.mi]
(I.Dir) (these.Dir) here-REDUP~throw.Aug-1st.Min
Here, I throw them.

(3) Augmented subject, minimal object =Augmented Verb (here too the object could be omitted but it would leave the number of the object ambiguous, which might be pragmatically useful)
/*(mʱi.ʃtʃʰə́:.ʃ-i) yə́: i.-pí.~sp<H>t.-mʱís/
[(mʱi.ʃtʃʰə́:.ʃi) yə́: i.pi.ʂpʰid.mʱís]
(we.Dir) this.Dir her-REDUP~throw-1st.Aug
Here, we throw it.

[2+3 clusivity]

Still working on the verbs.

Phonology. With reduplication, haplology will occur frequently; need to figure out how that plays with deictic element triggered allophony. Not sure if the stems become too opaque: using s-initial stems with reduplication the following occurs --

More: show

/-StʰV-/ -> /sə.~ˈstʰV:-/
Infixed deixis with stem strong: /ʃi~.ˈʂʈʰV:-/ or /ʂu~.ˈʂʈʰV:-/
Stem strong: /i.ʂə~.ˈstʰV:-/ or /u.ʂə~.ˈstʰV:-/
Infixed Deixis with stem weak: /ˈai̯.ʃi~.ʂʈʰ-/ or /ˈau̯.ʂu~.ʂʈʰ-/
Stem weak: /ˈai̯.ʂə~.stʰ/ or /ˈau̯.ʂə~.stʰ-/

/-SVd-/ -> /-ˈst~sʰV:d-/
Infixed deixis with stem strong: /ʃtʃʰi.~ ˈsV:d-/or /ʂʈʰu.~ˈʂV:d-/
Stem strong: /i.ˈʂʈ~ʂʰV:d-/ or /u.ˈʂʈ~ʂʰV:d-/
Infixed dexis with Stem weak: /ˈai̯.ʒdʒʱi.~ʐdʱ-/ or /ˈau̯.ʐɖʱu.~ʐdʱ-/ --Haplology--> /ˈai̯.ʒdʒʱi-/ or /ˈau̯.ʐɖʱu-/ --Voiced cluster simplification--> /ˈa.yi.dʒʱi-/ or /ˈa.wu.ɖʱu-/
Stem weak: /ˈai̯.ʐɖ~ʐʱə.d-/ or /ˈau̯.ʐɖ~ʐʱə.d-/ --Voiced cluster simplification--> /ˈa.yi.ɖʐʱə.d-/ or /ˈa.wu.ɖʐʱə.d-/

/-SvʱVn/ -> /sn̍.~ˈsvʱV:n-/
Infixed deixis with stem strong: /ʃin.~ˈsvʱV:n-/ or /sun.~ˈsvʱV:n-/
Stem strong: /i.ʂn̍.~ˈsvʱV:n-/ or /u.ʂn̍.~ˈsvʱV:n-/
Infixed Deixis with stem weak: /ˈai.ʃin.~ sun-/ or /ˈau.ʂun.~sun-/ --Haplology--> /ˈai.ʃin.sun-/ or /ˈau.ʂun-/
Stem weak: /ˈai.ʃn̍.~ sun-/ or /ˈau.ʂn̍.~sun-/

Deixis. I am still struggling with verbal deixis. Since the root and prefixes can take deictic marking and the pronominal cross-referencing suffixes can as well, two questions emerge. Must stem and prefix deixis match that of the suffixes, and, if not, is stem and prefix deixis based on S/A, S/O, or can it target obliques? Looking way ahead, can deictic agreement reach non-canonically marked S/A/O -- is the agreement probe occurring at a deep or surface level?

Aligning this with a prior comment from Radius viewtopic.php?f=7&t=41921 and also from Chris_Notts viewtopic.php?f=7&t=42601--

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. . . At present, the best well-accepted way to look at it is that languages have various behaviors that can be aligned accusatively or ergatively, and that most of the time these need not co-occur, save that some of them are rarely ergatively aligned and may depend on the alignment of other behaviors in the language. So the only spectrum that's widely accepted is that behaviors can be ranked according to how frequently they are [cross-linguistically] aligned one way or the other. For example:

subject assignment - rarely ergative
verb agreement - occasionally ergative
case marking - often ergative but still mostly accusative
noun incorporation - always ergative

Obviously a language need not have systematic noun incorporation before it can have ergative case marking, for example. So it's not as simple as the lower things on the list licensing higher ones. Another interesting point: all alignable behaviors are attested to be ergative in at least some language, but noun incorporation is not attested to be accusative in any language.

. . . If a language has very flexible agreement without explicit morphology or syntax to mark promotion (i.e. without overt voice marking), it often seems to be that:

1. The language has both A and P agreement
2. Agreement with A is quite rigid
3. It is the agreement which covers P which can also flexibly cover other semantic roles with no marking of promotion / no change in role-marking within NPs

Perhaps --

More: show

(1) Verb root and suffix deixis agreement: Oblique or ERG-ABS;
(2) Verbal Number: MIN-AUG ERG-ABS;
(3) Nominal marking: MIN-AUG Split-ERG based on aspect w/ DSM and DOM;
(4) Pronominal marking: MIN-AUG NOM-ACC w/ DSM and DOM;
(5) Verb adjective-like agreement: NOM-ACC; and
(6) Verb deixis/number/person agreement: NOM-ACC.

--WIP--

[2+3 clusivity]

Number.Case portmanteaux suffix and prefix schemes: minimal: stem stress and suffix zeroing; augmented: stem zeroing and suffix stress with nasalization or nasal suffix. Historical note, optionally prefixed and mandatory suffixed numerals/demonstratives fused with pronominal case suffixes create the nominal case paradigm. Essentially the root always takes accent and length; however, numeral suffixes can drag the accent leftward with corresponding changes.
• “One/some” (i.e. augmented) /**s(n̩)- -sń̩-/ -> /*H-C –sV́~-/ -> /C<ʰ> -sV́~-/, etc.; but ?? singular /**Ø- <V́> -sn̩-/ -> /*Ø- <V́> -nʱV ~ -[s/h](V)/ -> various; so, oddly, the same root derives both minimal as “a/some X” and augmented as “some one(s) (of) X”; and
• “two” (i.e. unit augmented) /**kʷ- -k(ʷ)V́-/ -> /*[k/p]- -[k/p]V́-/ -> /[k/p]- -[k/p]V́-/; k- -k- forms analogize most heavily; so, the fossil duals are really “two/a pair (of) X.”

Prefixation causes aspiration of the plural stem onset; fossilized *duals -> Dyadic yerms form similarly to unit augmented pluractionals with ?/**kʷ-/ -> /*k-/ or /*p-/ (Dyadic terms are also formed by other strategies) often with a /-k-/ suffix following the stem. Pluracationals are again related to the double v. non-double scheme.
• E.g. with a homogeneous dyadic body part: /*p-tVt-k-/ -> /pʂʈʱɨ.kʂʉ́:~/ or /*k-tV́t-k-/ -> /kʂʈʱɨ.kʂʉ́:~/ (showing fossilized dual); /k-mVt-k-/ -> /kʂmʱɨ.kʂʉ́:~/ “mother and child,”

Pluractional scheme: internal reduplication of stem coda with cluster simplification if the stem is zeroed. Stem original takes either dual /*SCk-/ <kʰ> or plural marking /*S-/ -> <H>.

Pluractional or augmented pluractional --
• /*-sV/ -> /(-:).hV-/; /*-sSV/ -> /(-:)sV-/
• /*-sL/ -> /(-:).Lʰ-/; /*-sSL/ -> /(-:)sLʰ-/
• /*-sP/ -> /(-:).Pʰ-/; /*-sSP/ -> /(-:)sPʰ-/
• /*-sT/ -> /(-:).Tʰ-/ ; /*-sST/ -> /(-:)sTʰ-/
• /*-sK/ -> /(-:).Kʰ-/; /*-sSK/ -> /(-:)sKʰ-/

Unit augmented pluractional --
• /*k-(S) / -> /*K(S)-/
• /*k-(S)L/ -> /*K(S)Lʰ-/
• /*k-(S)P/ -> /*KSPʰ-/
• /*k-(S)T/ -> /*KSTʰ-/
• /*k-(S)K/ -> /*KSʰ-/

Person Schemes: 1-2, 1-3 prox & dist: /*hm(V)- -> (:)mV/, 2-2, 2-3 prox & dist: /t(V)u-/, reflexive: /s(V)u-/, INT: /k(V)u-/ (fossilized distal?); 3-3 pronoun is identical to demonstrative

Deixis Schemes:
• prox: /*hi̯(V) ~ hi/ -> /(:)i̯(V) ~ (:)i /, Dist: /*hu̯(V) ~ hu/ ->/(:)u̯(V) ~ (:)u /, and ? /hn(V) ~ hn̥/, /ti(V)/, /tu(V)/
• default: root as stem; v. areal: stem from root prefixed with /áL-/ appropriate to deixis (e.g. /*ái-hi̯(V)-/ -> /*ái:y-/ -> /á.yi.y-/ but /*ái-ti(V)-/ -> /ái̯.ti-/)

Diminutive v. Augmentative Schemes:
• diminutive: stem coda simplification, optional initial clipping, suffix lengthening, high stress;
• augmentative: suffix lengthening, low stress, optional reduplication of stem onset.

Strong/weak/enclitic/zero Scheme: /V́(:)/ versus /ɨ/ versus /ʉ/ versus /Ø/
• Singular Pronoun roots, plural pronoun case suffixes
• Euphonic, etc.,
• Enclitic roots,
• singular pronoun case suffixes, plural pronoun stems

Nominative & LOC v. oblique scheme: /a/ v. /ʉ/

Plosive /pʰ p bʱ b; tʰ t dʱ d; kʰ k gʱ g/
Affricate /pfʰ pf bvʱ bv; tsʰ ts dz dzʱ; kʟ̝̊ʰ, kʟ̝̊, ɡʟ̝ʱ, ɡʟ̝/ the invlid group goes to /u̯ u̯ʱ l lʱ/
Fricative /sʰ zʱ ɦ/
Continuant /mʱ nʱ rʱ i̯ʱ lʱ u̯ʱ/
Semi-Vocalic class I /m~m̩ n~n̩ r~r̩ l~l̩/ (are all /l/ really /ʟ̘/?)
Semi-Vocalic class II /i̯~i u̯~u/
Vocalic /a() ʉ(:) ɨ(:)/
---
Onset – (S/P)C(L), (P)(P)(L) [heterorganic]
Nucleus – V(:)(L1/L2), L1/L2
Coda – (C)
---
Right to left syllable assignment.
• First V forms nucleus.
• First L forms nucleus unless followed by another L which instead forms the syllable nucleus (fix this)

[2+3 clusivity]

Okay! After a long hiatus on this, it’s time for a reboot.

Phonology.

/ m p b w | n t d | ts dz sʰ zʱ | ɻ | j | k g xʰ (?ɣʱ) | a, ə, ɨ, ʉ /

General Syllable Structure.

• (C)(C)(C)(w)(G)(V)(:)(G)(w)(C)(C)(C), where --
 C = {F, S, N}
 F = {sʰ, zʱ, xʰ} <Sʰ, Zʱ, H>
 S = {P, T, K}
 N = {m, n}
 P = {p, b}
 T = {t, ts, d, dz}
 K = {k, g}
 w = w
 G = {ɻ, j}
 V = {a, ə, ɨ, ʉ}

Phonotactic Restraints. (very much still working on this)

Onset and coda restrictions.

• Medial C clusters cannot exceed CCC
• !!!$CCC…CCC$ (If an onset or coda is CCC then the opposite edge may be at most CC) and perhaps savings leads !!C > ʰ.
• !!{FFF, NNN} (must have at least one fricative in a three consonant cluster)
• !!{PP, TT, KK, mm, nn} and !!{NFN} but {PFP, TFT, KFK} (no consecutive stop clusters)
• !!{$NC(C), (C)CN$}
• !!{PT, PK} and {?TK, ?mn} but {PFT, PFK, TFK} (essentially, oral stop clusters must advance in POA; perhaps such cluster are saved by an intervening fricative; yes, see below)
• !!FF but FSF (no fricative + fricative clusters)
• !P in an onset or coda with an adjacent-side labial glide

Nucleus and Glide restrictions.

• !!...w(G)(V)(:)(G)w… (i.e., only one labial glide per syllable)
• !!{...wj(V)(:)jw…, !!...wɻ(V)(:)ɻw…} (internal glides cannot be homo-organic)
• !!$V… ? > $hV…
• All syllables must have at least one vowel or glide. If there is no vowel, the glide forms the nucleus.
• ?? [nucleus assignment rule for chain glides without a vowel]

Allophones. (very much still working on this)

nasal allophones.

• Assimilate to the POA of a following oral stop

Fricative/aspirate allophones.

• {sʰ, zʰ}{N, S} > {s, z}{N, S}ʰ (including Fts > Ftsʰ); h{N, S} > {N, S}ʰ
• {sʰ, zʰ}{N, S}S > {s, z}{N, S}Sʰ; ; h{N, S}S > {N, S}Sʰ
• {N, S}{sʰ, zʰ}S > {N, S}{s, z}Sʰ; {N, S}hS > {N, S}ʰSʰ
• S{sʰ, zʰ} > S{sʰ, zʰ} (including Fts > Ftsʰ); Sh > Sʰ
• SS{sʰ, zʰ} > SS{s, z}ʰ; SSh > SSʰ
• ??{hSS, ShS} > SʰSʰ
• {sʰ, zʰ}S{sʰ, zʰ} > {sʰ, zʰ}SʰTʰ; hS{sʰ, zʰ} > SʰTʰ (front-back check?)
• {sʰ, zʰ}Sh > {sʰ, zʰ}SʰKʰ; hSh > SʰKʰ (front-back check?)
• ??FS{Sʰ, Zʰ} > FSʰTʰ; FSh > FSʰKʰ

[2+3 clusivity]

Or, perhaps:

/m*, n/ (*?/nʷ/ with [m])
/mbʙ*, ndr, ɳɖɽ/ (*?/ndrʷ/ with [mbʙ])
/t, tʰ, t:, tʷ, tʷʰ, k̙, k̙ʰ, k̙:, k̙ʷ, k̙ʷʰ/
/ts, tsʰ, ts:, ts:ʰ, tsʷ, tsʷʰ, tʃ, tʃʰ, tʃ:, tʃ:ʰ, tʃʷ, tʃʷʰ, ʈʂ, ʈʂʰ, ʈʂ:, ʈʂ:ʰ, ʈʂʷ, ʈʂʷʰ, kʟ̝̊, kʟ̝̊ʰ, kʟ̝̊:, kʟ̝̊ʷ, kʟ̝̊ʷʰ/
/s, z, s:, sʷ, zʷ, s:ʷ, ʃ, ʒ, ʃ:, ʃʷ, ʒʷ, ʃ:ʷ, ʂ, ʐ, ʂ:, ʂʷ, ʐʷ, ʂ:ʷ, ʟ̝̊, ʟ̝̊:, ʟ̝̊ʷ, ʟ̝̊:ʷ, h/
/j, jʷ, ɻ, ɻʷ, w/
/ə, ə̃, ə:, ə̃:, ɨ, ɨ̃, ɨ:, ɨ̃:, ʉ, ʉ̃, ʉ:, ʉ̃:, a, ã, a:, ã:/

Syllable level: (S)F(S)(G)V(G)(S)F -- /h/ is the default onset and coda, but is realized as : / V_$. Then again, screw open syllables, maybe it is just /h/ in the coda. S=stop, affricate; F=fricative; G=approximant; V=vowel or approximant not adjacent to a similar G. Strong consonants =/= geminates and are not subject to POA assimilation rules.

Phrase/clause level: (SPEC) (PRE-ADJ+(PRE-ADJ)) (PRE-COMP) X (POST-COMP) (POST-ADJ+(POST-ADJ)) (COMP) – Non-Rigid Head-final. Need to work more on pre- and post- modifiers. Likely has post- and (maybe) circum-positions of some sort.

So, for example: (1) NP[DEM [N’ (…) N] (…) ] COMP, and (2) [A.NP IP[VP[XP[…] V] INFL]] COMP

Grammatical Persons grouped by common morpheme(s): 1(+2(+2)), 2(+2)/3d.prox, 3d.dist -- basically, reference to a 2d person is open ended in terms of logical number unlike reference to a 3d person.

Pronoun/Verb Agreement Number grouped by common morpheme(s): un-augmented, 3d.prox associatively augmented, 3d.dist associatively augmented

Non-Pronominal number: un-augmented, non-associative plural

Kin, Proper Nouns, Etc. can receive both "Pronoun number" and "Non-pronominal number"