Carinnaha

[Travis B.]

After creating the phoneme inventory and orthography of an alphabetlang (now named Carinnaha), I figured I would actually use it, since Anthologica is down so I cannot work on Xanínə.

Obviously, the phoneme inventory and orthography are as follows:

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
/a p tɕʼ t eː ɸ k χ i tɕ kʼ l m n oː pʼ qʼ ɾ s tʼ u β w ɕ j z/

/m n/ m n
/p t tɕ k ʔ/ b d j g ∅
/pʼ tʼ tɕʼ kʼ qʼ/ p t c k q
/ɸ s ɕ χ/ f s x h
/β z/ v z
/ɾ l/ r l
/w j/ w y
/i eː a oː u/ i e a o u
Note that there is also [ə], which is unwritten.

The syllable structure is as follows:

({O, N})({L, G})V({L, G})({O, N})

or:

({O, N})({L, G})Vː(C)


O: obstruent
N: nasal
L: liquid
G: glide

Disallowed consonant clusters are broken up with [ə] or, adjacent to a uvular consonant, [ɐ]. Note that larger onsets are preferred over larger codas, when both would allow the same number of inserted [ə]s, except that final CəC is preferred over final CCə, but geminates are not broken up.
Geminates are allowed for all consonants.
/n/ assimilates to the POA of following consonants.
/t tʼ n/ cannot be followed by /l/ in an onset.
/ppʼ ttʼ tɕtɕʼ kkʼ/ assimilate together to [pʼː tʼː tɕʼː kʼː]
/pʼpʼ tʼtʼ tɕʼtɕʼ kʼkʼ qʼqʼ/ assimilate together to [pʼː tʼː tɕʼː kʼː qʼː]
Tenuis plosives voice between vowels.
/β/ assimilates together with following or preceding /w/ to [w].
Voiced obstruents devoice adjacent to voiceless obstruents.
Epenthetic [j] is inserted after /i eː/ followed by a non-close front vowel, written y.
Epenthetic [w] is inserted after /u oː/ followed by a non-close back vowel, written w.
Epenthetic [j] is inserted before /i eː/ preceded by an open vowel, written y.
Epenthetic [w] is inserted before /u oː/ preceded by an open vowel, written w.
/ai/ becomes simply [eː] or [ɛː] (adjacent to uvular consonants), written e.
/au/ becomes simply [oː] or [ɔː] (adjacent to uvular consonants), written o.
/aa/ becomes simply [a], written a
/i eː a oː u/ become [e ɛː ɑː ɔː o] adjacent to uvular consonants.

[Travis B.]

Nominal Declension

There are two genders, masculine and feminine, two systems of number, singular versus plural and, in some nouns, collective versus singulative (which is orthogonal to singular versus plural number), two cases, nominative versus oblique, three states, definite versus indefinite versus construct (yes I'm stealing this one from Semitic), and nouns inflect for the person, number, and gender of their possessor.

Indefinite and definite state nouns have the following format:

preposition-stem-adjective nominalization-gender-singulative-definiteness-plural-case

where

preposition is ∅ (obviously) for nouns not preceded by simple prepositions and otherwise a simple preposition attached to the noun stem
adjective nominalization is ∅ except for nouns nominalized from adjectives, where then it is a for property nominalization and u for instance nominalization
gender is ∅ for masculine and many feminine nouns and h for other feminine nouns (especially if the noun can also be masculine)
singulative is ∅ for singular, plural, and collective and at for singulative singular and singulative plural ("plural of paucity")
definiteness is ∅ for indefinite and m for definite
plural is ∅ for singular, collective, and singulative singular and n for plural and singulative plural
case is a for nominative and i for oblique but ∅ if a possessive affix is attached

Construct state nouns have the following format:

preposition-stem-adjective nominalization-gender-singulative-plural-possessor

where these are the same as the above, except for that:

possessor is ∅ for no possessor and otherwise:

1st sg. k 1st pl. kn
2nd m. sg. ba 2nd m. pl. ban
2nd f. sg. bet 2nd f. pl. betn
3rd m. sg. d 3rd m. pl. dn
3rd f. sg. s 3rd f. pl. sn
reflexive sg. aw reflexive pl. aw

Note that these "possessor" affixes are also used for forming conjugated prepositions, forming independent personal pronouns (by attaching them to a dummy stem), marking objects on verbs, and marking arguments of verbal nouns.

[Travis B.]

Verbal Conjugation

Finite verbs may be realis, where if they are main verbs they have witness, deductive, reportative, or assumption evidentials except in questions, or irrealis, where then they may be subjunctive, imperative, or jussive/cohortative. In addition to finite verbs there is also a verbal noun (which may have an object or a subject marked), an active participle, and a passive participle.

All verb forms may be either perfect or imperfect with the exception of imperative and jussive verbs, with perfect implying perfective and past and imperfect implying imperfective or stative and non-past, but more complex tenses are formed with auxiliary verbs; note that verb stems are inherently either perfect or imperfect, and for some verbs affixes are used to derive imperfect verbs from perfect verbs or perfect verbs or imperfect verbs, but for many verbs, especially many common ones, different stems are used for each.

Finite verbs are marked for the person, number, and gender of their subject, and transitive verbs are marked for the person, number, and gender of their object. Verbal nouns are marked for their subject or object with the same forms by which other nouns are marked for possession. Active participles are marked for their objects by a preposition, and passive participles are marked for their subjects by a preposition.

There are derivational affixes for deriving any reasonable combination of passive voice, causative voice, reflexive voice, and reciprocal voice for verbs (e.g. one can form a passive from a causative verb ("he was made to eat gruel") or a causative of a passive verb ("he made him be eaten") or a reflexive of a causative verb ("he made himself eat"). There are also verbs that are inherently causative, passive or middle voice, reflexive, and/or reciprocal. Note that causative, reflexive, and reciprocal derivation is used for participles, but passive derivation is not, with different inflectional mechanisms being used to mark active participles versus passive participles.

Verbs that may be transitive are normally ambitransitive.

Note that adjectival and nominal stems may be used as verb stems, where then they have predicative adjectival and equational meanings respectively. Both are imperfect by default. Inchoative verb stems can be derived from adjectival and nominal stems by prefixing k to them.

Non-imperative finite verbs have the following format:

subject-derivation-aspect/tense-stem-subjunctive/jussive-evidential-indirect object-negative-direct object

where

subject is the person, number, and gender of the subject:

1st sg. n 1st pl. t
2nd m. sg. di 2nd m. pl. y
2nd f. sg. u 2nd f. pl. wa
3rd m. sg. a 3rd m. pl. mi
3rd f. sg. di 3rd f. p. w

aspect/tense is ∅ when no aspect/tense interconversion is needed, d to convert an imperfect stem to a perfect verb, or m to convert a perfect stem to an imperfect verb.
derivation is ∅ when no derivation is needed or any combination of s for passive voice, r for causative voice, t for reflexive voice, and nu for reciprocal voice, ordered from last to first.
subjunctive/jussive is ∅ for indicative and imperative verbs, in for subjunctive verbs and ah for jussive/cohortative verbs.
evidential is ∅ for questions, non-main verbs, and irrealis verbs, a for witness, h for deductive, ya for reportative, or ek for assumption.
indirect object is ∅ for verbs without indirect objects and otherwise the subject, number, and gender of the indirect object (note that that the 3rd m. sg. indirect object marker am is also used with a venitive meaning):

1st sg. ad 1st p. ar
2rd m. sg. as 2rd m. pl. asd
2rd f. sg. ar 2rd f. p. ard
3rd m. sg. am 3rd m. pl. and
3rd f. sg. aw 3rd f. p. awd
reflexive sg. at reflexive pl. at

negative is ∅ for affirmative verbs and r for negative verbs except jussive verbs, which receive na for a prohibitive.
direct object is ∅ for intransitive verbs and otherwise marked like personal possession on nouns with regard to person, number, and gender of objects.

Imperative finite verbs have the following format:

subject-derivation-stem-indirect object-prohibitive-direct object

where the above are the same as with non-imperative finite verbs except:

stem is the (only) stem of the verb for verbs with one principle part, the perfect stem of the verb for verbs with separate perfect and imperfect stems, and a specialized imperative stem for verbs with one.
subject is the number and gender of the subject (always second person):

2nd m. sg. ∅ 2nd m. pl. i
2nd f. sg. u 2nd f. pl. a

prohibitive is ∅ for affirmative verbs and na for prohibitive verbs.

Verbal nouns have the following format (excluding affixes that are common with nouns):

derivation-aspect/tense-stem

where these have the same meanings as above.

Participles have the following format (excluding affixes that are common with adjectives):

derivation-aspect/tense-stem-kind

where these have the same meanings as above (except passive marking is not used as part of derivation) but

kind is t for active participles, n for passive participles, aw for dative/benefactive participles, v for instrumental participles, and er for locative participles

[Travis B.]

Adjective Declension

Adjectives are marked for the gender, definiteness, singular versus plural, and case of their referents.

They have the following format:

stem-nisba-gender-definiteness-plural-case

where

nisba is ∅ except for nisba-adjectives derived from noun stems, where then it is inn
gender is ∅ for masculine and h for feminine
definiteness is ∅ for indefinite and m for definite
plural is ∅ for singular, collective, and singulative singular and n for plural and singulative plural
case is a for nominative and i for oblique

[Travis B.]

Syntax

The basic word order is verb adverb subject object PP.

The NP word order is noun possessor adjective number PP relative clause.

Note that relative clauses are simply placed at the ends of their NPs, without any other marking. If the noun is the subject or object of the outermost relative clause it is marked with a gap, otherwise it is marked with a resumptive pronoun.

[Travis B.]

Number Declension

Numbers are marked for the gender of their referents.

They have the following format:

stem-gender

where

gender is ∅ for masculine and h for feminine

However, the number one, rat, is also marked for the definiteness and case of its referent and has the following format:

rat-gender-definiteness-case

where

gender is ∅ for masculine and h for feminine
definiteness is ∅ for indefinite and m for definite
case is a for nominative and i for oblique

Note that all numbers can be turn into ordinal adjectives with id attached to the stem, and both cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers can be nominalized like adjectives.

[Travis B.]

Prepositions

The following are some common prepositions:

dative/benefactive: h (also used to mark possession, especially where construct state is already being used to express compound nouns and in combination with the existential verb)
instrumental/comitative: m (also used to mean and)
ablative: ga
locative: s
allative: u
partitive: ni
comparative: qo
equative: r

These form conjugated prepositions in combination with the "possessive" affixes used with nouns.

These are commonly used in combination with relational nouns to express more fine-grained distinctions of meaning.

[Travis B.]

Some Nouns

As I have nowhere else to store vocabulary online, I am going to put it here.

Note that all nouns are given in their nominative singular form and all verbs are given in their indicative perfect or imperfect (depending on which is default) witness form with a 3rd m. sg. subject.

person: nedra (m.) [neːtɾa], nedrha (f.) [neːtɾɐχɑ]
people: guha (f., coll.) [koχɑ] (stem guha)
thing: jalla (m.) [tɕalːa]
idea: cafa (f.) [tɕʼaɸa]
name: neja (m.) [neːdʑa]
place: trda (f.) [tʼɾəda]
time, tide: liga (f.) [liɡa]
mass: kula (m.) [kʼula]
topic, subject: breha (m.) [pɾɛːχɑ]
hour: xiata (m.) [ɕiʔatʼa]
land: gnta (m.) [kəntʼa]
lake: guaha (f.) [kuʔɑχɑ]
sea: jurra (m.) [tɕurːa]
island: wabba (f.) [wapːa]
river: vrha (m.) [βɾɐχɑ]
canal, channel: dretnha (f.) [tɾeːtʼnɐχɑ]
bay: gwea (m.) [kweːʔa] (stem gwea)
village: yota (m.) [joːtʼa]
town: kmda (m.) [kʼəmta]
city: nulla (f.) [nulːa]
baby: ludda (f.) [lutːa]
child: roha (m., coll.) [ɾɔːχɑ], rohha (f., coll.) [ɾɔːχːɑ]
adolescent: freda (m.) [ɸɾeːda], fredha (f.) [ɸɾeːtχɑ]
friend: sloa (f.) [sloːʔa] (stem sloa)
father: caya (m.) [tɕʼaja]
mother: duxa (f.) [tuɕa]
brother: ryinna (m.) [ɾjinːa]
sister: hela (f.) [χɛːla]
son: sbra (m.) [səpɾa]
daughter: zoka (f.) [zoːkʼa]
nephew: savna (m.) [saβna]
niece: qudda (f.) [qʼotːa]
paternal grandfather: kyalla (m.) [kʼjalːa]
maternal grandfather: geta (m.) [keːtʼa]
paternal grandmother: jana (f.) [tɕana]
maternal grandmother: fika (f.) [ɸikʼa]
paternal uncle: sikka (m.) [sikʼːa]
maternal uncle: vraqa (m.) [βɾɑqʼɑ]
paternal aunt: niha (f.) [neχɑ]
maternal aunt: leza (f.) [leːza]
paternal male cousin: drba (m.) [tɾəba]
maternal male cousin: ginna (m.) [kinːa]
paternal female cousin: rawa (f.) [ɾawa]
maternal female cousin: xyova (f.) [ɕjoːβa]
day: yaha (m.) [jɑχɑ]
night: ruka (f.) [ɾukʼa]
morning, tomorrow: (f.) litra [litʼɾa]
noon: soca (m.) [soːtɕʼa]
afternoon: fara (m.) [ɸaɾa]
evening: weklha (f.) [weːkʼlɐχɑ]
humankind: lakrha (f.) [lakʼɾɐχɑ]
base: riyya (m.) [ɾijːa]
house: tarda (f.) [tʼaɾta]
road: faxa (f.) [ɸaɕa] (stem faxa)
path: nima (f.) [nima]
hill: sdeha (m.) [sədɛːχɑ]
mountain: trvha (f.) [tʼɾəβχɑ]
valley: fida (f.) [ɸida]
flood: lefa (f.) [leːɸa]
rain: deya (m.) [teːja]
storm: sha (m.) [sɐχɑ]
lightning, attack: rika (f.) [ɾikʼa]
wave: xua (m., coll.) [ɕuʔa] (stem xua)
tree: lyiha (f., coll.) [ljeχɑ] (stem lyiha)
plant: satra (m., coll.) [satʼɾa]
animal: bvna (m.) [pəβna]
water: kera (m., mass) [kʼeːɾa]
air: xnnaha (f., mass) [ɕənːɑχɑ]
wind: brkna (m.) [pɾəkʼna]
light: laxha (f., maybe mass) [laɕχɑ]
sound: vera (m., maybe mass) [βeːɾa]
sun: qara (m.) [qʼɑɾa]
moon, month: brna (f.) [pɾəna]
star: lita (m.) [litʼa]
planet: lita vitrta (m.) [litʼa βitʼɾətʼa]
meteor: lita byota (m.) [litʼa pjoːtʼa]
comet: lita qirra (m.) [litʼa qʼerːa]
season: briwwa (f.) [pɾiwːa]
spring: draya (f.) [tɾaja]
summer: kabba (f.) [kʼapːa]
autumn: tewa (f.) [tʼeːwa]
winter: yorha (f.) [joːɾχɑ] (stem yorh)
sky: dutha (f.) [tutʼχɑ]
ground: witra (m.) [witʼɾa]
world: leda (m.) [leːda]
soil: yoka (f.) [joːkʼa]
food: saada (m., coll.) [saʔada]
grain: carda (m., coll.) [tɕʼaɾta]
bread: tiaha (m., mass) [tʼiʔɑχɑ]
soup: brqa (f., mass) [pɾɐqʼɑ]
fruit: filha (f., coll.) [ɸilχɑ]
vegetable: gaja (f., coll.) [kadʑa]
meat: zuka (m., mass) [zukʼa] (stem zuka)
nut: madha (f., coll.) [matχɑ]
seed: yihra (m., coll.) [jeχɾɑ]
milk: zekka (f., mass) [zeːkʼːa]
fire: diqaha (f, may be mass). [teqʼɑχɑ]
smoke: vira (m., mass) [βiɾa] (stem vira)
ash: unnha (f., mass) [unːɐχɑ]
soot: xoga (m., mass) [ɕoːɡa]
dust: lufa (f., mass) [luɸa]
field: ryiqa (m.) [ɾjeqʼɑ]
skin, surface: gwuka (m., maybe mass) [kwukʼa]
head, top, above: gaha (f.) [kɑχɑ] (stem gah)
brain: liva (f.) [liβa]
hair: bvila (m., coll.) [pəβila]
eye: dta (f., coll.) [tətʼa]
eyelash: zaqa (m., coll.) [zɑqʼɑ]
eyebrow: klma (f., coll.) [kʼləma]
ear: ninna (m., coll.) [ninːa]
nose: vyena (m.) [βjeːna]
mouth, out: qroda (m.) [qʼɾoːda]
lip: seka (f., coll.) [seːkʼa]
tooth: gutha (f., coll.) [kutʼχɑ]
tongue: ciha (f.) [tɕʼeχɑ]
chin: zella (m.) [zeːlːa]
throat: fojha (f.) [ɸoːtɕχɑ]
neck: nifa (m.) [niɸa]
arm: leqa (m., coll.) [lɛːqʼɑ]
elbow: ryiha (f., colll.) [ɾjeχɑ] (stem rih)
wrist: gruva (m., coll.) [kɾuβa]
hand: wiqla (f., coll.) [weqʼlɑ]
finger: treka (m., coll.) [tʼɾeːkʼa]
(finger/toe)nail: selha (f., coll.) [seːlχɑ]
chest: drma (m.) [tɾəma]
breast: halla (f., coll.) [χɑlːa]
heart, inside: jogra (m.) [tɕoːkɾa]
lung: yumha (f., coll.) [jumχɑ]
stomach, front, in front: lida (f.) [lida]
spine, back, behind: juka (m.) [tɕukʼa]
waist: blira (m.) [pliɾa]
penis: molda (f.) [moːlta]
testes: krlla (m., coll.) [kʼɾəlːa]
vulva, vagina: deka (m.) [teːkʼa]
buttocks, bottom: xwala (f.) [ɕwala]
thigh: hetha (f., coll.) [χɛːtʼχɑ]
leg: banna (m., coll.) [panːa]
knee: leha (f., coll.) [lɛːχɑ]
ankle: cuqa (m., coll.) [tɕʼoqʼɑ]
foot, below: trna (m., coll.) [tʼɾəna]
heel: hacra (m., coll.) [χɑtɕʼɾa]
toe: medha (f., coll.) [meːtχɑ]
urine: gadda (m., mass) [katːa]
feces: vrila (m., mass) [βɾila]
boat, ship: ladna (m.) [latna]
cart: rigna (f.) [ɾikna]
horse: cinda (m.) [tɕʼinta]
male animal: yika (m.) [jikʼa]
female animal: vuha (f.) [βoχɑ] (stem vuh)
baby animal: drota (m., coll.) [tɾoːtʼa]
head of cattle: leta (f., coll.) [leːtʼa]
sheep: gabra (m., coll.) [kapɾa]
goat: hwatta (f., coll.) [χwɑtʼːa]
pig: yuxa (m., coll.) [juɕa]
rabbit: vaha (m., coll.) [βɑχɑ]
chicken: tuhra (f., coll.) [tʼoχɾa]
goose: dola (m, coll.) [toːla]
duck: drmha (f., coll.) [tɾəmχɑ]
cat: wihha (m.) [weχːɑ]
dog: xufa (f.) [ɕuɸa]
deer: jada (f., coll.) [tɕada]
mouse: pavva (m.) [pʼaβːa]
rat: lyoxa (f.) [ljoːɕa]
wolf: qobrha (f.) [qʼɔːpɾɐχɑ]
bird: meqna (m., coll.) [mɛːqʼna]
fish: klna (f., coll.) [kʼləna]
word: coya (f.) [tɕʼoːja]
language variety: heka (m.) [χɛːkʼa]
condition: mida (f.) [mida]
cause: neba (f.) [neːba]
choice: gluta (f.) [klutʼa]
speed: valla (m.) [βalːa]
realm, kingdom: jeta (f.) [tɕeːtʼa]
king: vrala (m.) [βɾala], vralha (f.) [βɾalχɑ]
prince: coma (m.) [tɕʼoːma], comha (f.) [tɕʼoːmχɑ]
will: grpha (f.) [kɾəpʼχɑ]
debt: gribba (f.) [kɾipːa]
evil: sluja (f.) [sludʑa]
accident: glebha (f.) [kleːpχɑ]
clock: heqrdha (f.) [χɛːqʼɾətχɑ]
surroundings, around: gyala (f.) [kjala]
middle, between: mixa (f.) [miɕa]
door: yetha (f.) [jeːtʼχɑ]
glass: konna (m.) [kʼoːnːa]
swirl: reqqa (f.) [ɾɛːqʼːɑ]
victory: loha (m.) [lɔːχɑ]
god, deity: tea (m.) [tʼeːʔa], teaha (f.) [tʼeːʔɑχɑ] (stem tea)
place of worship: brafha (f.) [pɾaɸχɑ]
priest: noha (m.) [nɔːχɑ], nohha (f.) [nɔːχːɑ]
alphabet: leyha (f.) [leːjχɑ]
garden: rayka (f.) [ɾajkʼa]
crop: midda (m., coll.) [mitːa]
market: nehha (m.) [nɛːχːɑ]

[Travis B.]

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are used to express more complex tenses/aspects, particularly with subject-ka-(mood)-(evidential)-s (perf.) and subject-ko-(mood)-(evidential)-s (impf.) combined with a verbal noun (which if the overall verb is transitive agrees with its object).

subject-ka-(mood)-(evidential)-s combined with an imperfect verbal noun forms past imperfective.
subject-ka-(mood)-(evidential)-s combined with a perfect verbal noun forms pluperfect (perfective).
subject-ka-(mood)-(evidential)-s combined with ka combined with an imperfect verbal noun forms the pluperfect imperfective.
subject-ko-(mood)-(evidential)-s combined with a perfect verbal noun forms present retrospective.

Note that the word order in such forms is:

subject-ka/ko-(mood)-(evidential)-s S verbal noun

if intransitive and:

subject-ka/ko-(mood)-(evidential)-s S verbal noun-(object) (O)

if transitive except when verbal noun-(object) is ka where then it is:

subject-ka-(mood)-(evidential)-s S ka verbal noun

if intransitive and:

subject-ka-(mood)-(evidential)-s S ka verbal noun-(object) (O)

if transitive.

The future, when not implicit from the use of a time expression or adverb, is expressed with subject-ro-(mood)-(evidential) (impf.) combined with h (dative) and an a verbal noun (which if the overall verb is transitive agrees with its object)

subject-ro-(mood)-(evidential) combined with h and an imperfect verbal noun forms the future imperfective.
subject-ro-(mood)-(evidential) combined with h and a perfect verbal noun forms the future perfective.

Note that the word order in such forms is:

subject-ro-(mood)-(evidential) S h-verbal noun

if intransitive and:

subject-ro-(mood)-(evidential) S h-verbal noun-(object) (O)

if transitive.

[Travis B.]

Numbers (more)

The numbers are:

one: rat / rath (inflects for definiteness and case as well)
two: mi / mih
three: vra / vrah
four: ked / kedh
five: sak / sakh
six: sak mrate / sakh mratahi
seven: sak mmiye / sakh mmiyahi
eight: sak mvre / sakh mvrahi
nine: sak mkede / sakh mkedahi
ten: qart / qarth
eleven: qart mrate / qarth mratahi
twelve: qart mmiye / qarth mmiyahi
etc.
sixteen qart msake mrate / qarth msakahi mratahi
etc.
twenty: job / jobh
twenty one: job mrate / jobh mratahi
etc.
thirty: job mqarte / jobh mqartahi
thirty one: job mqarte mrate / jobh mqartahi mratahi
etc.
forty: job mi / jobh mih
forty one: job mi mrate / jobh mih mratahi
etc.
fifty: job mi mqarte / jobh mih mqartahi
fifty one: job mi mqarte mrate / jobh mih mqartahi mratahi
etc.
hundred: rekr / rekrh
hundred and one: rekr mrate / rekrh mratahi
etc.
hundred and ten: rekr mqarte / rekrh mqartahi
hundred and eleven: rekr mqarte mrate / rekrh mqartahi mratahi
etc.
hundred and twenty: rekr mjobe / rekrh mjobahi
hundred and twenty one: rekr mjobe mrate / rekrh mjobahi mratahi
etc.
hundred and thirty: rekr mjobe mqarte / rekrh mjobahi mqartahi
hundred and thirty one: rekr mjobe mqarte mrate / rekrh mjobahi mqartahi mratahi
etc.
hundred and forty: rekr mjobe mi / rekrh mjobahi mih
hundred and forty one: rekr mjobe mi mrate / rekrh mjobahi mih mratahi
etc.

[Travis B.]

Some Verbs

do, general auxiliary verb: aka (perf.) [akʼa], ako (impf.) [akʼoː], ki (imp.) [kʼi]
go, also used to express the future: are (perf.) [aɾeː], aro (ipfv.) [aɾoː], ri (imp.) [ɾi]
equational be: ana (perf.) [ana], aqa (impf.) [ɑqʼɑ], hi (imp.) [χe]
existential be: ame (perf.) [ameː], amu (impf.) [amu]
make, create: ablr (perf.) [apləɾ], ablor (impf.) [aploːɾ], ablir (imp.) [apliɾ]
shall: ayak (perf.) [ajakʼ], ayuk (impf.) [ajukʼ]
can, able to: ajat (perf.) [adʑatʼ], ajut (impf.) [adʑutʼ]
be supposed to: awar (perf.) [awaɾ], awur (impf.) [awuɾ]
dare: ajart (perf.) [adʑaɾtʼ], ajurt (impf.) [adʑuɾtʼ]
give: adm (perf.) [adəm], admo (impf.) [atmoː], dmi (imp.) [təmi]
take: apag (perf.) [apʼak], apog (impf.) [apʼoːk], pig (imp.) [pʼik]
hold: ajah (perf.) [adʑɑχ], ajoh (impf.) [adʑɔːχ]
feel (an object): araw (perf.) [aɾaw], arow (impf.) [aɾoːw]
keep: axat (perf.) [aɕatʼ]. axut (impf.) [aɕutʼ]
carry: abeta (perf.) [abeːtʼa], abota (impf.) [aboːtʼa]
choose: ageh (perf.) [agɛːχ], agoh (impf.) [agɔːχ]
seek: abart (perf.) [abaɾtʼ], abirt (impf.) [abiɾtʼ]
see: aqad (perf.) [ɑqʼɑt], aqud (impf.) [ɑqʼot]
say: alin (perf.) [alin], alun (impf). [alun]
speak: arm (impf.) [aɾm]
sing: aqry (perf.) [ɑqʼɾəj], aqroy (impf.) [ɑqʼɾoːj], aqriy (imp.) [ɑqʼɾij]
walk: ahn (perf.) [ɑχɐn]
run: axall (impf.) [aɕalːə]
jump: azay (perf.) [azaj]
swim: agwd (impf.) [akwət]
wander: avitr (impf.) [aβitʼəɾ]
rise: afra (perf.) [aɸɾa], afru (impf.) [aɸɾu]
fall: abye (perf.) [apjeː], abyo (impf.) [apjoː]
pull: asav (perf.) [asaβ]
push: azit (perf.) [azitʼ], azut (impf.) [azutʼ]
enter: awidr (perf.) [awidəɾ]
leave: avreq (perf.) [aβɾɛːqʼ]
live: ayaq (impf.) [ajɑqʼ]
die: adro (perf.) [atɾoː]
live in/at: agrt (impf.) [akɾətʼ]
be related to: agyart (impf.) [akjaɾtʼ]
eat: agal (perf.) [aɡal], agol (impf.) [aɡoːl], gil (imp.) [kil]
drink: avak (perf.) [aβakʼ]
taste: aney (perf.) [aneːj], anoy (impf.) [anoːj]
swallow: acer (perf.) [atɕʼeːɾ], acor (impf.) [atɕʼoːɾ]
spit: abrk (perf.) [apɾəkʼ]
vomit: apadr (perf.) [apʼadəɾ]
cry: axotn (impf.) [aɕoːtʼən]
urinate: ajutr (impf.) [adʑutʼəɾ]
defecate: aqald (perf.) [ɑqʼɑlt]
sneeze: agyar (perf.) [akjaɾ]
sleep: asidd (impf.) [asitːə]
be awake: anema (impf.) [aneːma]
dream: akur (impf.) [akʼuɾ]
know: anar (perf.) [anaɾ], anur (impf.) [anuɾ]
think: amr (perf.) [aməɾ], amer (impf.) [ameːɾ]
feel (a feeling): aqald (perf.) [ɑqʼɑlt], aquld (impf.) [ɑqʼolt]
believe: agla (perf.) [akla], aglo (impf.) [akloː]
learn: azum (perf.) [azum]
remember: arint (perf.) [aɾintʼ]
forget: akay (perf.) [akʼaj]
find: awad (perf.) [awat], awod (impf.) [awoːt]
lose: aceh (perf.) [atɕʼɛːχ], acoh (impf.) [atɕʼɔːχ]
forgive: aray (perf.) [aɾaj]
stand: atran (impf.) [atʼɾan]
sit: ahemm (impf.) [ɑχɛːmːə]
lie: adrb (impf.) [atɾəp]
bother: ablar (impf.) [aplaɾ]
mind: azaj (impf.) [azatɕ]
join: adruj (perf.) [atɾutɕ]
split: afim (perf.) [aɸim]
lead: aqer (perf.) [ɑqʼɛːɾ], aqor (impf.) [ɑqʼɔːɾ]
follow: alay (perf.) [alaj], aluy (impf.) [aluj], liy (imp.) [lij]
count: agay (impf.) [aɡaj]
tempt: agaw (perf.) [aɡaw]
save, rescue, deliver: axab (perf.) [aɕap]
prevent: anawt (perf.) [anawtʼ]
hit, strike, beat: asaj (perf.) [asatɕ], asoj (impf.) [asoːtɕ]
be worth: akrda (impf.) [akʼɾəda]
plow: ahalu (perf.) [ɑχɑlu], ahulu (impf.) [ɑχolu]
dig: akla (perf.) [akʼla], aklu[/g] (impf.) [akʼlu]
slip through: anih (pef.) [aneχ]
fuck: akeh (perf.) [akʼɛːχ], akoh (impf.) [akʼɔːχ]
nurture: agitn (impf.) [aɡitʼən]
nuzzle: arinn (impf.) [aɾinːə]
escape: aqaw (perf.) [ɑqʼɑw]
grow: abli (impf.) [apli]
farm: akre (impf.) [akʼɾeː]
plant: azawn (perf.) [azawn]
plow: arih (perf.) [aɾeχ]
harvest: acard (perf.) [atɕʼaɾt]
build: aqrah (impf.) [ɑqʼɾɑχ]
put together: aparh (perf.) [apʼaɾχ]
fix, repair: alag (perf.) [alak]
take apart, disassemble: amill (perf.) [amilːə]
destroy: abiq (perf.) [abeqʼ]
add: atnd (perf.) [atʼnət], atnud (impf.) [atʼnut]
remove: amit (perf.) [amitʼ]
start: ayeh (perf.) [ajɛːχ], ayoh (impf.) [ajɔːχ], yih (imp.) [jeχ]
stop: asay (perf.) [asaj], asuy (impf.) [asuj], siy (imp.) [sij]
finish: anew (perf.) [aneːw], anow (impf.) [anoːw]
try, attempt: aqaj (perf.) [ɑqʼɑtɕ], aqoj (impf.) [ɑqʼɔːtɕ]
clean: abrek (perf.) [apɾeːkʼ], abrok (impf.) [apɾoːkʼ]
write: avaq (perf.) [aβɑqʼ]
draw: afreh (impf.) [aɸɾɛːχ]
read: agak (impf.) [agakʼ]
hear: alav (perf.) [alaβ], aluv (impf.) [aluβ]
listen: ahra (perf.) [ɑχɾa], ahru (impf.) [ɑχɾu], hri (imp.) [χɾi]
look: afal (perf.) [aɸal], afol (impf.) [aɸoːl], fel (imp.) [ɸeːl]
watch: avla (perf.) [aβla], avlu (impf.) [aβlu]
drag: axay (impf.) [aɕaj]
sew: alex (perf.) [aleːɕ], alox (impf.) [aloːɕ]
tie: atrid (perf.) [atʼɾit]
tear, rip: ahle (perf.) [ɑχleː]
cut: arax (perf.) [aɾaɕ]
fold: aqrb (perf.) [ɑqʼɾəp]
throw: asox (perf.) [asoːɕ]
catch: ayat (perf.) [ajatʼ]
fit (intr.): aswah (impf.) [aswɑχ]
cook: aweh (perf.) [awɛːχ], awoh (impf.) [awɔːχ]
wash: atyad (perf.) [atʼjat], atyud (impf.) [atʼjut]
drain (intr.): agyab (impf.) [akjap]
swim: azyoq (impf.) [azjɔːqʼ]
chase: agwm (impf.) [akwəm]
fly: amyt (impf.) [amjətʼ]
flee: azwet (impf.) [azweːtʼ]
jump, hop: asyot (perf.) [asjoːtʼ]
give birth: agyak (perf.) [akjakʼ]
climb: axyad (impf.) [aɕjat]
sweep: aryim (impf.) [aɾjim]
dig: ahyom (impf.) [ɑχjoːm]
paint: aqwab (impf.) [ɑqʼwap]
break: ahlag (perf.) [ɑχlak]
squeeze: alinn (perf.) [alinːə]
squash: ayart (perf.) [ajaɾtʼ]
buy: aqel (perf.) [ɑqʼɛːl], aqol (impf.) [ɑqʼɔːl]
sell: ahew (perf.) [ɑχɛːw], ahow (impf.) [ɑχɔːw]
trade: avadr (perf.) [aβadəɾ]
steal: aflah (perf.) [aɸlɑχ]
lend: acaw (perf.) [atɕʼaw], acow (impf.) [atɕʼoːw]
borrow: ayast (perf.) [ajasətʼ], ayust (impf.) [ajusətʼ]
measure: alaw (perf.) [alaw]
step: aqar (perf.) [ɑqʼɑɾ], aqur (impf.) [ɑqʼoɾ]
turn (intr.): alar (perf.) [alaɾ], alur (impf.) [aluɾ]
spin (intr.): avax (impf.) [aβaɕ]
roll (intr.): ader (perf.) [adeːɾ], ador (impf.) [adoːɾ]
slip: axar (perf.) [aɕaɾ]
run into, collide: ayar (perf.) [ajaɾ]
bump: asah (perf.) [asɑχ]
crash: awikr (perf.) [awikʼəɾ]
slide: alorh (impf.) [aloːɾχ]
flood: avay (perf.) [aβaj]
curse: arawk (perf.) [aɾawkʼ]
defile: aqarh (perf.) [ɑqʼɑɾχ]
rule: ajor (impf.) [adʑoːɾ]
order: akarb (perf.) [akʼaɾp]
rebel: ahakr (perf.) [ɑχɑkʼəɾ]
execute: aqyahr (perf.) [ɑqʼjɑχɐɾ]
wait: acahr (perf.) [atɕʼɑχɐɾ], acuhr (impf.) [atɕʼoχɐɾ]
delay: alikr (perf.) [alikʼəɾ]
dawdle: atern (impf.) [atʼeːɾn]
act hastily: akehm[/g] (impf.) [akʼɛːχɐm]
have pity for: agyeb (impf.) [akjeːp]
have mercy for: arigr (impf.) [aɾigəɾ]
pray: ayabn (perf.) [ajabən], ayubn (impf.) [ajubən]
beg: awer (perf.) [aweːɾ], awor (impf.) [awoːɾ]
love: aleh (impf.) [alɛːχ]
like: arok (impf.) [aɾoːkʼ]
glance: alek (perf.) [aleːkʼ], alok (impf.) [aloːkʼ]
stare: ahibn (impf.) [ɑχebən]
attack, assault: akor (perf.) [akʼoːɾ]

[Travis B.]

Some Adjectives and Determiners

proximal demonstrative: da [ta] (note that this can be nominalized, e.g. to form the dummy stem for pronouns).
distal demonstrative: vam [βam] (not that this can be nominalized).
all: ha [χɑ] (stem ha)
every: doha [tɔːχɑ]
each: feqa [ɸɛːqʼɑ]
much: ska [səkʼa]
many: reta [ɾeːtʼa]
enough yema [jeːma]
some: teya [tʼeːja]
any: niya [nija] (stem ni)
few: drda [tɾəda]
less: nika [nikʼa]
no: vowa [βoːwa] (stem vo)
good: vta [βətʼa]
bad: rba [ɾəba]
great: sbara [səbaɾa]
small: blna [pləna]
large: saa [saʔa] (stem saa)
short (length): piva [pʼiβa]
long: grona [kɾoːna]
short (height): haba [χɑba]
tall: kworda [kʼwoːɾta]
low: sba [səba]
middle: mixa [miɕa]
high: jaa [tɕaʔa] (stem jaa)
inner: xaja [ɕadʑa]
outer: hora [χɔːɾa]
right: lea [leːʔa] (stem lea)
wrong: jora [tɕoːɾa]
easy: sqa [səqʼɑ]
difficult: brida [prida]
quiet: yrka [jərkʼa]
loud: zyela [zjeːla]
bright: xiqna [ɕeqʼnɑ]
dark: malla [malːa]
cold: wiyya [wijːa]
cool: xoma [ɕoːma]
warm: hyera [χjɛːɾa]
hot: grna [kɾəna]
close: srdda [sɾətːa]
far: vekra [βeːkʼɾa]
new, young: sta [sətʼa] (stem sta)
old: yidra [jitɾa]
ancient: janda [tɕanta]
archaic: kabla [kʼapla]
worthy: fola [ɸoːla]
slow: nibra [nipɾa]
fast, quick: linna [linːa]
soft: gaha [kɑχɑ]
hard: bitra [pitʼɾa]
rough: crexa [tɕʼɾeːɕɑ]
smooth: kura [kʼuɾa]
flat: xawa [ɕawa]
crunched up: hwalla [χwalːa]
wet: hawa [χɑwa]
dry: dunna [tunːa]
next: qaya [qʼɑja]
previous, past: jugya [tɕukja]
sweet: lupa [lupʼa] (stem lupa)
sour: hrta [χɾətʼa]
bitter: vlada [βlada]
savory: fuxa [ɸuɕa]
smelly: lia [liʔa] (stem lia)
open (adj.): xoda [ɕoːda]
close (adj.): velna [βeːlna] (stem velna)
thick: gyaqa [kjɑqʼɑ]
thin: mifa [miɸa]
full: siva [siβa]
empty: jaqa [tɕɑqʼɑ]
half: fura [ɸuɾa]
first: vrka [βɾəkʼa]
happy: truha [tʼɾoχɑ]
sad: zinna [zinːa]
angry: xoka [ɕoːkʼa]
bored: neha [nɛːχɑ]
energetic: joba [tɕoːba]
aroused: syiga [sjiga]
tired, weary: nyua [ɲjuʔa] (stem nyua)
sleepy: ruga [ɾuga]
excited: zofa [zoːɸa]
pretty, handsome: ciba [tɕʼiba]
ugly: vanga [βaŋka]
permanent: grta [kɾətʼa]
temporary, transient: qirra [qʼerːa]
fortunate: rimma [ɾimːa]
unfortunate: lanka [laŋkʼa]
holy: zeba [zeːba]
orthodox: yopa [joːpʼa]
heretical: ryaha [ɾjɑχɑ]
white: hita [χetʼa]
black: groka [kɾoːkʼa]
gray: vma [βəma]
brown: riga [ɾiga]
red: pagwa [pʼakwa]
yellow: wrna [wəɾna]
green: luka [lukʼa]
blue green: vtra [βətʼɾa]
blue: neba [neːba]
violet: tirha [tʼiɾχɑ]

[Travis B.]

Some Adverbs

never: ri [ɾi]
now: mah [mɑχ]
then: va [βa]
back: xaja [ɕadʑa]
also: lan [lan]
however: vaqa [βɑqʼɑ]
not (for adjectives): ra [ɾa]

[Travis B.]

Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences are formed by putting the apodosis before the protasis and connecting them with ga (allative) followed by mid (construct of mida "condition").

Counterfactual conditional sentences place both the apodosis and the protasis in subjunctive mood; otherwise they are both in indicative mood. (In any case either can be imperfect or perfect.)

[Travis B.]

Clause Nominalization

Clauses are simply nominalized by using them like nouns, except that they do not inflect, and cannot take possessors. They are often possessed by nouns in construct state, which take the role of (usually subordinating) conjunctions.

Conjunction-like Forms

The instrumental/comitative preposition m is frequently used to mean and.
The instrumental/comitative preposition m with the construct form glut "choice" is frequently used to mean or (both with normal nouns and with clauses).
The dative/benefactive preposition h is frequently used to mean for, so that, so as to.
The comparative preposition qo is frequently used to mean than (both as a preposition and as a conjunction).
The equative preposition r is frequently used to mean as, like (both as prepositions and as conjunctions).
The ablative preposition ga with the construct form mid "condition" is frequently used to mean if.
The ablative preposition ga with the construct form neb "cause" to frequently used to mean because.
The ablative preposition ga with the construct form lig "time" is frequently used to mean after.
The ablative preposition ga with the construct form trd "place" to frequently used to mean from where.
The locative preposition s with the construct form lig "time" is frequently used to mean when or while.
The locative preposition s with the construct form trd "place" is frequently used to mean where.
The allative preposition u with the construct form lig "time" is frequently used to mean before.
The allative preposition u with the construct form trd "place" is frequently used to mean to where.
The allative preposition u with the construct form neb "cause" is frequently used to mean therefore.

[Vardelm]

I like what you have here so far, probably because.....

Verbal Conjugation

Finite verbs may be realis, where if they are main verbs they have witness, deductive, reportative, or assumption evidentials except in questions, or irrealis, where then they may be subjunctive, conditional, imperative, or jussive/cohortative.

GAH!!! I was just outlining a conlang this weekend that is very similar to this. I'm using slightly different evidentials, and an optative instead of conditional mood. Beyond that, though, it's pretty different since I have tense but no aspects, very little noun inflection, different phonology, etc.

Great minds think alike?

[Travis B.]

Predicative Possession

Inspired by the "have" discussion on here, I have decided to make a number of different kinds of predicative possession.

The two kinds is "have" possession, expressed with the existential verb and the dative/benefactive preposition h, "own" possession, expressed with the locative preposition s, and "have on" possession, expressed with the instrumental/comitative preposition m. These can be combined in the same sentence.

[Travis B.]

I like what you have here so far, probably because.....

Verbal Conjugation

Finite verbs may be realis, where if they are main verbs they have witness, deductive, reportative, or assumption evidentials except in questions, or irrealis, where then they may be subjunctive, conditional, imperative, or jussive/cohortative.

GAH!!! I was just outlining a conlang this weekend that is very similar to this. I'm using slightly different evidentials, and an optative instead of conditional mood. Beyond that, though, it's pretty different since I have tense but no aspects, very little noun inflection, different phonology, etc.

Great minds think alike?

I tend to put evidentials in all my languages, with sets similar to the above, and used to put in indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and optative moods; but I decided recently that I did not like optative mood and instead turned it into jussive/cohortative (reflecting the use of optative mood to express third-person commands or requests) in a previous language I was working on (which has likely been lost with Anthologica crashing with likely data loss), and I carried that over into this language. I recently put in conditional mood into this language, but since it would be only used in the apodosis of counterfactual conditional forms, I decided to take it out pretty soon thereafter (and use subjunctive in its place).

[Vardelm]

I tend to put evidentials in all my languages, with sets similar to the above, and used to put in indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and optative moods; but I decided recently that I did not like optative mood and instead turned it into jussive/cohortative (reflecting the use of optative mood to express third-person commands or requests) in a previous language I was working on (which has likely been lost with Anthologica crashing with likely data loss), and I carried that over into this language. I recently put in conditional mood into this language, but since it would be only used in the apodosis of counterfactual conditional forms, I decided to take it out pretty soon thereafter (and use subjunctive in its place).

The interplay of different moods is interesting. I haven't thought much about it until this language. I can see optatives being separate, or being subsumed into either the subjunctive or imperatives. Hortatives & jussives might be separate or part of imperatives. It makes for some interesting design choices. Right now, my conlang has tense only in the indicative, but I think a daughter language might start using the optative as a future subjunctive, and the subjunctive as a present optative, if that makes sense. Fun stuff to play with.

Looking forward to seeing more.

[Travis B.]

Interrogative Sentences

In all interrogative sentences, the main verb has no evidential.

Yes-no questions are introduced with the particle ya before the main verb.

Wh-questions are introduced with a noun phrase where the noun is modified by determiner xa (stem xa) (inflected like an adjective, and placed in the same slot as demonstratives), i.e. immediately after the last genitive noun.

[Travis B.]

Vocatives

Vocative NPs are placed first in a sentence, before interrogative particles, interrogative NPs, or fronted topic NPs, and are prefixed with the particle a, which is prefixed onto the vocative NP.

[Travis B.]

Adverbialization

Adverbializing an adjective, when modifying another adjective, involves simply using the stem of the adjective with no endings placed after the modified adjective.

Adverbializing an adjective, when modifying a verb, involves quality nominalizing the adjective as a feminine noun, and placing it after the instrumental/comitative preposition m.

Adverbializing a verb, when modifying an adjective, involves simply using the appropriate participle (usually active participle) with no extra endings after the participle ending after the modified adjective.

Adverbializing a verb, when modifying another verb, involves quality nominalizing the appropriate participle (usually active participle) as a feminine noun or using the verbal noun, and placing after the instrumental/comitative preposition m.

[Travis B.]

Participle TAM

Participles realize perfect versus imperfect as perfective versus imperfective aspect, inheriting tense from their containing clause.

[Vardelm]

Example sentences w/ parses, pwease!

[Travis B.]

Some Examples

Agalyad nedrma vahatmi akas gul satrmi sjogr raykd.
[agaljat neːtɾəma βɑχɑtʼmi akʼas kul satʼɾəmi sədʑoːgəɾ ɾajkʼət]

A-

SUBJ.3.S.M-

gal

eat.PERF

-ya

-REPORT

-d

-OBJ.3.S.M

nedr

person.M

-m

-DEF

-a

-NOM

vah

rabbit.M.COLL

-at

-SING

-m

-DEF

-i

-OBL

a-

SUBJ.3.S.M-

ka

do.PERF

-s

-OBJ.3.S.F

gul

eat.IMPF.F

satr

plant.M.COLL

-m

-DEF

-i

-OBL

s-

LOC-

jogr

inside.M

rayk

garden.F

-d.

-POSS.3.S.M

(I heard that) the man ate the rabbit who was eating the plants in his garden.

Dikayas nedrhma gak vaqnuhni ryahhni wlundn jallni ryahni sbreh teamni mteahmni retmni.
[tikʼajas neːtɾɐχma kakʼ βɑqʼnoχni ɾjɑχːɐni wəluntən tɕalːəni ɾjɑχni səpɾɛːχ tʼeːʔamni mətʼeːʔɑχməni ɾeːtʼməni]

Di-

SUBJ.3.S.F-

ka

do.PERF

-ya

-REPORT

-s

-OBJ.3.S.F

nedr

person.M

-h

-F

-m

-DEF

-a

-NOM

gak

read.IMPF.F

vaq

write

-n

-PART.PASS

-u

-NOM.INST

-h

-F

-n

-PL

-i

-OBL

ryah

heretical

-h

-F

-n

-PL

-i

-OBL

w-

SUBJ.3.P.F-

lun

say.IMPF

-dn

-OBJ.3.P.M

jall

thing.M

-n

-PL

-i

-OBL

ryah

heretical

-n

-PL

-i

-OBL

s-

LOC-

breh

topic.M

tea

god.M

-m

-DEF

-n

-PL

-i

-OBL

m-

COM-

tea

god.M

-h

-F

-m

-DEF

-n

-PL

-i

-OBL

ret

many

-m

-DEF

-n

-PL

-i.

-OBL

The woman read heretical books that said heretical things about the many gods and goddesses.